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HOMOPHOBIA

Sociologyindex, Xenophobia, Sociology Books 2012, Homophobia

Homophobia is literally an uncontrollable fear of homosexuals and of homosexuality, but the term is generally used for a negative and contemptuous attitude to same-sex sexual relationships and to those who participate in them.

Theorizing Homophobia 
A series of contemporary theories that have been used to explain homophobia are assessed. Structural, feminist, comparative, gender panic, queer, and socio-historical theories rely on the premises of a diverse set of scholarly disciplines, and in turn, generate their own objects of analysis, whether `homophobia', `heterosexism', or `heteronormativity'. While the current flourishing of gay and lesbian studies has generated important insights into the workings of homophobia, analyses have also tended to be limited and fragmentary. This paper suggests a study of homophobic projects that combines theoretical tools able to recognize experience, discourse, structure, and history. - Barry D. Adam, University of Windsor, Canada 
Sexualities, Vol. 1, No. 4, 387-404 (1998) © 1998 SAGE Publications

The Religious Right and Public Education: The Paranoid Politics of Homophobia 
With the political rise of the U.S. Religious Right, public educators, administrators, and policy makers have faced numerous charges that public schools promote homosexuality. These charges have been made regardless of the actual content of various programs and curricula. Nevertheless, the typically incendiary charges seem an effective political tool in derailing and/or reshaping educational reform and program offerings. Drawing upon the methodologies of social historiography and historical policy analysis, this author examines the use of strategic homophobia by the Religious Right in their quest to "take back America,"concluding with a general discussion of homophobia, paranoid politics, and implications for educational policy makers and public school personnel. - Catherine A. Lugg 
Educational Policy, Vol. 12, No. 3, 267-283 (1998) © 1998 SAGE Publications

The Relationship Between Attitudes: Homophobia and Sexism Among Social Work Students 
This article reports on a study of the relationship between students' attitudes toward women and toward gay men and lesbians and changes in those attitudes during social work courses at two universities. The study found a significant relationship between students' levels of homophobia and sexism. The relationship was stronger for female students than for male students and varied by race and aca demic major. The article also discusses the implications of the findings for changing social work curricula. - Beverly Black, Thomas P. Oles, Linda Moore  - Affilia, Vol. 13, No. 2, 166-189 (1998) © 1998 SAGE Publications

Homophobia and Transphobia
By Walter Williams, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of Southern California, CA, USA
XV Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association Symposium
The State of Our Art and the State of Our Science
Abstract: Many of the problems facing sexually nonconformist and gender nonconformist people are similar, in terms of homophobic and transphobic prejudices and discrimination. Based on his new book Overcoming Heterosexism and Homophobia: Strategies That Work (Columbia University Press), Professor Williams applies theories of attitude change and prejudice reduction to the effort to overcome discrimination against gender variant persons. Rather than focusing on changing the transgender person to fit into society, this approach suggests specific strategies to change society’s transphobic attitudes and behaviors. - symposion.com/ijt/hbigda/vancouver/william2.htm

Perverts and sodomites: homophobia as hate speech in Africa 
Reddy V.
Source: Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Volume 20, Number 3, 1 August 2002, pp. 163-175(13)
Abstract: This article profiles homophobia as a form of hate speech in the African context by locating the issue of homophobia and hate speech primarily within the context of language and gender. The article draws on insights from language and gender, queer theory, discourse analysis and Foucauldian post-structuralism to offer a preliminary reading of homophobia as a form of hate speech. It seeks to provide a better understanding of homophobia by analysing the linguistic choices that speakers make in a particular context or situation; and to explain how the choices are intrinsically linked to issues of gender, language and power. Namibia, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia and Egypt are used as primary examples, and data are drawn from media reports in both the print and electronic format. The conclusions show how homophobia and hate speech threaten democracy and human rights. - ingentaconnect.com

Homophobia in Health Education: Implications for Practice.
Baker, Judith A.
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (San Francisco, CA, April 2-6, 1991).
Abstract: The impact of homophobia on health education practice has received little attention until recently. As a profession, health educators have not yet adequately addressed lesbian and gay health issues. This paper defines homophobia and discusses the consequences of homophobia in health education and implications for practice. The health education needs of lesbians and gays are seldom met as a consequence of homophobia. Areas of particular relevance to health educators include heterosexual bias in sexuality education curriculum and textbook context, AIDS education, hate violence, adolescent suicide, and health education research on lesbian and gay topics. Strategies for eliminating homophobia include professional development of health educators and curriculum change at the university level. Fourteen references are included. - searcheric.org/ericdb/ed332964.htm

The Boys at the Back: Challenging Masculinities and Homophobia in the English Classroom.
Martino, Wayne
Journal Citation: English in Australia, v1 n127-128 p35-50 May 2000 ISSN: ISSN-0046-208X
Abstract: Presents two critical incidents about boys seated at the back of the classroom. Draws attention to how particular versions of masculinity influence how boys learn to relate and the possibilities for interrogating these kinds of masculinities in the English classroom. Explores what role already existing reading practices within English might play in undertaking this kind of critical practice. - searcheric.org/ericdc/EJ614487.htm

Is homophobia associated with homosexual arousal?
Adams HE, Wright LW Jr, Lohr BA., Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens 30602-3013, USA.
J Abnorm Psychol. 1996 Aug;105(3):440-5.
The authors investigated the role of homosexual arousal in exclusively heterosexual men who admitted negative affect toward homosexual individuals. Participants consisted of a group of homophobic men (n = 35) and a group of nonhomophobic men (n = 29); they were assigned to groups on the basis of their scores on the Index of Homophobia (W. W. Hudson & W. A. Ricketts, 1980). The men were exposed to sexually explicit erotic stimuli consisting of heterosexual, male homosexual, and lesbian videotapes, and changes in penile circumference were monitored. They also completed an Aggression Questionnaire (A. H. Buss & M. Perry, 1992). Both groups exhibited increases in penile circumference to the heterosexual and female homosexual videos. Only the homophobic men showed an increase in penile erection to male homosexual stimuli. The groups did not differ in aggression. Homophobia is apparently associated with homosexual arousal that the homophobic individual is either unaware of or denies. - ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence 
Random School Shootings, 1982-2001 
Michael S. Kimmel, State University of New York at Stony Brook 
Matthew Mahler, State University of New York at Stony Brook 
American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 46, No. 10, 1439-1458 (2003) DOI: 10.1177/0002764203046010010 © 2003 SAGE Publications
Since 1982, there have been 28 cases of random school shootings in American high schools and middle schools. The authors find (a) that the shootings were not a national problem but a series of local problems that occurred in "red states" or counties (places that voted Republican in the 2000 election); (b) that most of the boys who opened fire were mercilessly and routinely teased and bullied and that their violence was retaliatory against the threats to manhood; (c) that White boys in particular might be more likely than African American boys to randomly open fire; and (d) that the specific content of the teasing and bullying is homophobia. A link between adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence is proposed. Finally, the authors offer a few possible explanations as to how most boys who are teased and bullied achieve the psychological resilience that enables them to weather adolescence without recourse to random school violence. - abs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/short/46/10/1439

Homophobia as an Issue of Sex Discrimination: Lesbian and Gay Equality and the Systemic Effects of Forced Invisibility
Christopher N Kendall BA (Hons), LLB, LLM, PhD, Associate Professor, Murdoch University School of Law
E Law, Volume 3, Number 3 (September 1996)
Conference Papers from "Sexual Orientation and the Law"
Abstract: This paper examines the role of heterosexism in reinforcing heterosexual male privilege and patriarchal power. It is argued that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is an issue of gender discrimination which must be addressed if the attempts of legislators to eliminate other forms of systemic inequality are to be truly effective. - murdoch.edu.au/elaw/indices/title/kendall_abstract.html

Internalized homophobia and health issues affecting lesbians and gay men 
Iain R. Williamson, School of Behavioural Studies, Nene University College Northampton, Park Campus, Boughton Green Road, Northampton NN2 7AL, UK 
Health Education Research, Vol. 15, No. 1, 97-107, February 2000 © 2000 Oxford University Press 
Abstract: This paper investigates the concept of internalized homophobia in both theory and research relating to lesbian and gay health. It offers a contemporary and critical review of research in this area, and discusses a range of recent findings relating to a range of health issues including HIV and AIDS. Whilst the concept has a resonance for gay men and lesbians, and is widely used in `lesbian and gay-affirmative' interventions, the paper demonstrates that research findings have been equivocal and the term is often used without full consideration of its sociopolitical consequences. The paper concludes that the concept does have a valuable role to play in health promotion work with lesbians and gay men but invites further discussion and examination of the construct. - her.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/1/97

The impact of homophobia, poverty, and racism on the mental health of gay and bisexual Latino men: findings from 3 US cities
RM Diaz, G Ayala, E Bein, J Henne and BV Marin, Institute on Sexuality, Inequality and Health, San Francisco State University, 3004 16th St, Suite 301, San Francisco, CA 94103, USA. rmdiaz@sfsu.edu 
American Journal of Public Health, Vol 91, Issue 6 927-932, Copyright © 2001 by American Public Health Association 
OBJECTIVES: This study assessed the relation between experiences of social discrimination (homophobia, racism, and financial hardship) and symptoms of psychologic distress (anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation) among self-identified gay and bisexual Latino men in the United States. METHODS: Data were collected from a probability sample of 912 men (self-identified as both Latino and nonheterosexual) recruited from the venues and public social spaces identified as both Latino and gay in the cities of Miami, Los Angeles, and New York. RESULTS: The study showed high prevalence rates of psychologic symptoms of distress in the population of gay Latino men during the 6 months before the interview, including suicidal ideation (17% prevalence), anxiety (44%), and depressed mood (80%). In both univariate and multivariate analyses, experiences of social discrimination were strong predictors of psychologic symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The mental health difficulties experienced by many gay and bisexual Latino men in the United States are directly related to a social context of oppression that leads to social alienation, low self-esteem, and symptoms of psychologic distress. - ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/91/6/927

Homophobia, hate and violence against lesbians and gays in NSW : an overview of some studies
Paul van Reyk 
Coordinator, Lesbian and Gay Anti-Violence Project, New South Wales
Published in: International victimology : selected papers from the 8th International Symposium : proceedings of a symposium held 21-26 August 1994 
Chris Sumner, Mark Israel, Michael O'Connell and Rick Sarre (eds.) 
ISBN 0 642 24008 6 ; ISSN 1034-5086 Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 1996
Abstract: Van Reyk discusses the growing political strength of the Australian gay and lesbian communities in drawing attention to physical and symbolic violence directed against them. He outlines the incidents of assaults on both lesbians and gays in New South Wales. (Abridged version of paper) 
If you see this message you are probably using an old browser: these pages should be readable, but we recommend updating to a modern browser. - aic.gov.au/publications/proceedings/27/vanreyk.html

When in Rome: Heterosexism, Homophobia, and Sports Talk Radio 
David Nylund, University of California, Davis, California State University, Sacramento 
Journal of Sport & Social Issues, Vol. 28, No. 2, 136-168 (2004) DOI: 10.1177/0193723504264409 © 2004 SAGE Publications
This article critically analyzes the U.S. growth of sports talk radio programs, with a particular focus on its sex and gender implications. It has been argued that sports talk radio texts reinscribe dominant ideologies, namely, hegemonic masculinity. A textual and audience analysis of the most popular nationally syndicated program, The Jim Rome Show, suggests that although the program reproduces many aspects of traditional masculinity, sexism, and heterosexism, there are fissures and exceptions to the dominant, hyper-masculine discourse. For instance, Jim Rome’s liberal stance on homophobia and sports indicates that sports radio may be a place for sports fans/men to discuss gender and sexuality in meaningful ways. Hence, The Jim Rome Show serves as a mediated site where men can negotiate and reconfigure masculinity in contemporary postmodern times. - jss.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/28/2/136

Paths to Homophobia
Mary Bernstein
Sexuality Research and Social Policy: Journal of NSRC April 2004, Vol. 1, No. 2, Pages 41-55 Posted online on December 14, 2004. (doi:10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.41) Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mary Bernstein, Department of Sociology, University of Connecticut, Unit 2068, 344 Mansfield Rd., Storrs, CT 06269-2068. E-mail: Mary.Bernstein@uconn.edu
Abstract: This paper draws on in depth case studies of antigay/lesbian activism as well as on the sociological literature on racial prejudice to develop and operationalize the concepts of group position and stereotypes as mediating mechanisms which explain homophobia. Based on this analysis, this paper posits the importance of the continued promotion of antigay/lesbian stereotypes as well as a sense of group position that views heterosexuals as more capable than lesbians and gay men for understanding homophobia. This paper then develops scales to measure both group position and stereotypes. Next, drawing on a survey of police department employees, the paper illustrates the explanatory value of these concepts via path analysis. This paper argues that these mediating concepts clarify contradictory findings within the literature on homophobia and concludes with policy implications. - caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.41

Homophobia and Hostility: Christian Conservative Reactions to the Political and Cultural Progress of Lesbians and Gay Men
Thomas J. Linneman
Abstract: American society has witnessed a steady rise in anti-gay sentiment and activity among many Christian conservatives. While other issues, such as abortion and school prayer, also capture their attention, homosexuality seems to produce increasingly intense reactions from them. In this article, I offer an explanation for this phenomenon. Rather than attributing this increase to a rise in homophobia among Christian conservatives, I argue that an important explanation lies in the ways Christians perceive hostility from the general culture. In contrast to earlier years, a greater proportion of the hostility that Christians currently perceive is filtered through the general culture’s often positive reactions to the gay and lesbian rights movement. I illustrate this argument by using numerous sources of data: secondary analyses of national opinion datasets, a content analysis of newspaper editorials, and in-depth interviews with Christian conservatives. - caliber.ucpress.net/doi/pdf/10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.56

Homophobia and the 'Mathew Shepard Effect' in Lawrence v. Texas 
KRIS FRANKLIN, New York Law School 
NYLS Legal Studies Research Paper No. 05/06-5 New York Law School Law Review, Vol. 48, No. 4, p. 657-695, Summer 2004 
Abstract: This paper explores the significance of shifting cultural understandings of gay men and lesbians in the Supreme Court's majority, concurring and dissenting opinions in the landmark sodomy case Lawrence v. Texas. By examining the legal authorities in which the case's various opinions are grounded, the article shows that the differing positions taken by the Court reflect radically diverging views on the significance of homosexuality in contemporary culture. 
Beyond the rather easy observation that the Supreme Court justices are speaking different languages in the Lawrence opinion, the article contends that the rhetoric of the majority and dissent converge on at least one critical point: both acknowledge that sodomy prohibitions do not simply outlaw certain acts, but profoundly affect groups of people, that is, bisexuals, lesbians, and gay men. This notion was, until recently, hotly contested. But the article shows that the moment for the status/conduct debate about homosexuality seems to have passed, and that even those in favor of allowing states to proscribe gay sex concede that such laws uniquely resonate for a specific subset of the citizenry. This new-found consensus makes sense of Justice Kennedy's far-reaching majority opinion, but complicates enormously the dissent. The article argues that Justice Scalia's dissent is undone by its own position - once it acknowledges the existence of homosexuals, it becomes almost impossible to explain how gay-specific sodomy statutes are not an affront to their dignity. 
The essay also suggests that the majority opinion is suffused with an implicit but unacknowledged understanding of anti-gay prejudice. Contending that direct acknowledgment of the pernicious effects of racist bigotry was a crucial component in Brown v. Board of Education to which Lawrence has been compared, the essay argues that Lawrence cannot be similarly sea-changing if it is not also understood to introduce the concept of homophobia to the Court and to the larger public. - papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=809566

Homophobic attitude change. PH.D. Thesis, Indiana State University, DAI, Vol. B57-09, p. 5974, 103 pages. 
Beckham-Chasnoff S 
Abstract: This study investigated the intensity of homophobia related to its ability to be changed. Homophobia was assessed using the Modified Index of Homophobia (IHP-M). The effects of a videotape containing educational and emotionally persuasive material on homophobia was investigated. The relationships between individuals’ degree of homophobia, their attitudes’ susceptibility to change, and some selected demographic variables were also assessed. The sample consisted of 128 undergraduate students enrolled at a medium sized, state supported, midwestern university. This study employed a Solomon four-group experimental design to compare attitude change between participants viewing the treatment videotape and those viewing an alternative videotape. Testing effects as a result of the IHP-M being administered at pretest and posttest were also examined. Participants completed the IHP-M eight weeks later to assess any further changes in homophobia. 
Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed no differences between pretest, posttest, and follow-up scores of participants in the treatment and alternative treatment groups regardless of the attitudes’ intensity at pretest. Two-tailed t tests determined no testing effects were demonstrated. Pearson r correlations revealed significant relationships between homophobia and gender, hometown population, religious position, and number of gay people known to the participant. Pearson r correlations also revealed a significant relationship between change in homophobia and the number of gay people known to participants in the alternative treatment group. 
Results indicated no change in homophobia regardless of its intensity. However, men were found to be more homophobic than women, people from smaller hometowns were found to be more homophobic than those from larger ones, religiously conservative people were found to be more homophobic than less religiously conservative people, and the number of gay people known was related to lower levels of homophobia. Implications of these results and recommendations for further research were noted. 

A developmental model of homophobia as misogyny. PH.D. Thesis, Pacific Graduate School of Psychology, DAI, Vol. B54-12, p. 6454, 200 pages. 
Bloom MM
Abstract: This theoretical proposal reconceptualizes homophobia as misogyny to explain how internalized homophobia develops in men and women. A sociohistorical perspective is used to identify the misogynous underpinnings of homophobia and, in particular, show how stigmatized feminine qualities have been attributed to homosexuals. This perspective critiques the psychoanalytic construction of homoeroticism, an etiological picture that employed female development employed to pathologize homosexuality. An object-relations perspective provides the theoretical framework for delineating and blending sociofamilial and intrapsychic determinants into an etiology for homophobia. 
This developmental model proposes that traditional identifications of maleness and femaleness generate homophobia. Conflicts over independent and dependent strivings during pre-oedipal separation-individuation lead to the structuring of early psychic defenses to protect the self against both fears of merger and of abandonment. These unconscious fears, laid down as core gender identity, are modulated through later socialization, forming gender role identity and more conscious fears regarding masculinity and femininity. Homophobia, viewed essentially as a gender issue, is the defensive response to these fears which are experienced as threats to the sense of self. An understanding of homophobia as a result of defensive individuation and as an effort toward continued differentiation is developed. 

Homophobia in the 90’s: intolerance and acceptance of alternative lifestyles. M.A. Thesis, San Jose State University, MAI, Vol. 35-05, p. 1539 
Cullen JM
Abstract: The present study investigated current demographic and personality variables that may be predictors of homophobia. Predictor variables explored include traditional sex role beliefs, religion, gender, age, personal contact, self-esteem, community raised in, and personality characteristics. Participants included 123 SJSU university undergraduates enrolled in either introductory psychology or sociology. 
Participants completed a questionnaire containing demographic inquiries and four psychological measures including the Attitudes Towards Gays and Lesbians scale, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale. Results revealed personal contact with a homosexual, gender, and the personality variable Openness to Experience as the most substantial predictors. A significant difference on indices of homophobia was also found amongst the various religious groups (p < .05). The remaining variables (sex roles, age and community raised in) were not significant predictors. 
These results comprise a theoretical framework that identifies the personality and demographic predictors of the archetypal homophobe and may assist in our effort to understand the public’s overall biases, discriminations, and dissenting attitudes. 
Unconscious and conscious determinants of homophobia are examined across gender and sexual identity to account for its variability in strength, meaning, and expression. This model addresses bias in the study of homophobia and synthesizes extant research findings from psychodynamic and social-learning perspectives. Therapeutic implications and suggestions for further research are offered. 

Masculinity salience and homophobic reactions: affective and cognitive responses of sex-typed men to a gay male individual. PH.D. Thesis, University of Rhode Island, DAI, Vol. B54-07, p. 3849, 90 pages. 
Dunstan CD
Abstract: Homophobia has played a major part in the maintenance of traditional male roles. Yet attitudes toward gay men serve different functions in different individuals, and hostility toward gay men may be motivated by a number of factors. Research has tended to consider homophobic responses on a global basis rather than considering a particular function that homophobia may play. In addition, the cognitive and affective responses of homophobia have often been lumped together. 
The present study examines the relationship between masculinity salience and homophobia and assesses the cognitive and affective aspects of this homophobic response. It is particularly designed to examine the personal response to a gay individual as distinct from intellectualized attitudes toward homosexuality. Men who are identified as sex-typed or androgynous are asked to take part in a simulated job interview in which the interviewer is identified as heterosexual or homosexual. In addition, the situation is manipulated to prime or not to prime the heterosexual subschema by conducting the interview for either the position of a police officer or a store clerk. Affective and cognitive responses to the target are measured and a homophobic response is signified by increased affect or negative cognition or both. 
A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted with affective and cognitive variables as the dependent variables. Independent variables were interviewer sexual orientation, masculinity salience and participant’s sex-role. Significant differences were not produced. An analysis of variance was also carried out for each of the variables in the affective and cognitive clusters. There was, in particular, a significant difference in the response to straight and gay targets for the variable situational uncertainty, there being greater uncertainty when the target was identified as gay. The manipulation to prime the heterosexual subschema was not successful. 
The results of the study suggest that while there is some homophobic response within this group of college students, it is well contained and manifests itself as a slight increase in anger and disgust when with a gay person. These results are consistent with previous work in the field of homophobia in general. 

Internalized homophobia in gay men: an investigation of clinical sensitivity among psychotherapists. PSY.D. Thesis, California School of Professional Psychology, Berkeley/Alamena, DAI, Vol. B57-06, p. 4026
Edwards LT
Abstract: One of the most commonly reported failures in psychotherapy among gay men is the inability of the therapist to adequately grasp the degree of psychic trauma inflicted by society on the homosexual client. Given the institutionalized nature of heterosexism and homophobia, it is vital to consider the effect that internalization of these ubiquitous influences will have on the lives of gay men and how such influences might be expressed. Evidence would suggest that unresolved internalized homophobia may impinge on self esteem and identity development. Internalized homophobia has also been implicated in such diverse problems as intimacy issues, substance abuse, alcoholism, compulsive sexuality, depression, domestic violence, and eating disorders. The recognition and exploration of internalized homophobia is an ongoing process and must be recognized as both a primary concern and a contextual factor in psychotherapy with homosexual clients. 
In order to explore sensitivity to internalized homophobia among clinicians working with gay male clients, 500 licensed psychotherapists currently practicing in the San Francisco Bay and East Bay areas of Northern California were randomly selected and asked to complete an instrument designed for the study consisting of a demographic survey and four clinical vignettes. Participants were requested to provide a list of five salient issues for each vignette which they felt should be addressed in the course of treatment. Narrative responses were scored utilizing a four-point Likert scale devised to assess levels of sensitivity to internalized homophobia. 
While this study produced statistical evidence that homosexual or bisexual therapists are more sensitive to internalized homophobia than their heterosexual counterparts, all may be considered deficient at considering this important factor when treating gay male clients. Despite emphasis on cross-cultural training in the various mental health disciplines, it would appear that current efforts have not been successful in disseminating comprehensive information regarding the psychosocial intricacies of the gay male experience. While many respondents appeared well informed in their demonstrated concern for the potential difficulties in reconciling a positive gay identity, few were able to articulate a formulation or treatment plan addressing the deleterious effect of internalized homophobia. 

All the wrong places: homophobia, self-esteem, and anonymous sex among gay men. M.S.W. Thesis, California State University, MAI, Vol. 35-03, p. 708, 83 pages. 
Esparza GG
Abstract: This study explored relationships between the psychological adjustment variables of self-esteem and internalized homophobia on the frequency of anonymous sexual behavior in gay men. The study’s convenience sample consisted of 28 gay men between the ages of 23 to 52 years old. Participants completed a 20 minute questionnaire which consisted of a 10-item self-esteem scale, a 30-item index to measure internalized homophobia, and an eight-item scale that measured the frequency of anonymous sex. After completing the questionnaire, 10 respondents were selected to participate in a face-to-face tape-recorded interview as part of the qualitative aspect of this study. 
Findings indicated that no relationship exists between levels of self-esteem and anonymous sex. An inverse relationship, however, approached significance in the correlation between internalized homophobia and anonymous sexual behavior; that as the level of internalized homophobia decreased, the frequency of anonymous sex increased slightly. Further insight provided from the interview subjects suggested that some gay men perceive anonymous sexual activity as a positive element of their gay identity. 

The effects of two brief intervention strategies on homophobia and negative attitudes toward women. PH.D. Thesis. DAI, Vol. A58-04, p. 1199, 120 pages. 
Huffey BB
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of a gay and lesbian panel and a videotape on homophobia and negative attitudes toward women. The sample consisted of 96 undergraduate students from a variety of introductory courses at a midwestern university. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (1) educational videotape with posttest; (2) educational videotape with pretest and posttest; (3) gay and lesbian panel with posttest; and (4) gay and lesbian panel with pretest and posttest. The dependent variables included scores of homophobia (Index of Attitudes toward Homosexuals; Hudson & Ricketts, 1980) and scores of attitudes toward women (Attitudes toward Women-Simplified; Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1973). 
Four null hypothesis were examined. The first investigated the relationship of homophobic attitudes and attitudes toward women utilizing a Pearson r statistic. The second hypothesis investigated changes in attitude scores after a brief educational intervention utilizing t-tests. The third null hypothesis investigated the relationship of demographic variables with attitude scores and change in attitude scores utilizing a multiple regression analysis. The fourth null hypothesis investigated the effects of intervention, testing, and the interaction of intervention and testing utilizing a two-way analysis of variance. 
Additionally, one qualitative question was asked of participants regarding the most impactful aspects of the intervention strategies experienced. It was found that: (1) there is a slight relationship between homophobic attitudes and negative attitudes toward women; (2) both a gay and lesbian panel and an educational videotape are effective in reducing homophobia, but not in reducing negative attitudes toward women; (3) demographic variables of race/ethnicity and sex are related to negative attitudes toward women; and (4) neither testing, intervention strategy, nor interaction were found to be responsible for changes in attitude. Additionally, hearing from actual gay people may be an impactful aspect of brief educational interventions for reducing homophobia. 

Structure and development of homophobia. FIL. Dr., Gotenorgs Universitet, DAI, Vol. C57-03, p. 1043, 62 pages. 
Innala SM
Abstract: This dissertation comprises five empirical studies. Two of the studies explored the structure of affective reactions to a homosexual social situation and related these reactions to homophobic attitudes. Factor analysis detected two affective components of homophobia, Homophobic Anger and Homophobic Guilt. Homophobic Anger had a higher correlation with the cognitive component of homophobia than Homophobic Guilt did. Changes in attitudes toward homosexual individuals and homosexuality are often of short duration. The results suggest that to achieve lasting changes in attitudes toward homosexual individuals and homosexuality, it may also be necessary to change people’s affects toward homosexual individuals and homosexuality in a positive direction. 
A third study explored the relationship between homophobia and beliefs in a learned/chosen or innate cause of homosexuality. Data from four societies showed that those who believed that homosexual individuals are ‘born that way’ held significantly less negative attitudes toward homosexual individuals than those who believed homosexual individuals ‘learn/choose to be that way.’ A fourth study investigated how subjects understood words denoting a homosexual individual, such is gay, fag, and queer, when they first heard the words, and later in life. Subjects reported that they learned the words without understanding their denotations, whereas they understood that their connotations were negative and that the person referred to was weak. Later in life most subjects came to understand the correct denotations of the words, and they then associated the negative connotations with the concept of a homosexual individual. 
Many low-homophobic individuals seem to believe that gay men are overrepresented among the most beautiful men. The belief in this positive stereotype, the ‘gay-pretty-boy stereotype,’ was confirmed in a fifth study. Females rated facial photographs of physically attractive males as significantly more physically attractive when they believed that the males were gay than when they believed that the males were heterosexual. 

Homophobia, homosexuals and homosexuality

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