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RACISM

Sociology Index, Race, Sociology Books 2012, ETHNIC GROUP AND ETHNIC IDENTITY, Ethnocentrism, Nazism, Racism

Racism is an ideology based on the idea that humans can be separated into distinct racial groups and that these groups can be ranked on a hierarchy of intelligence, ability, morality etc.

Irrational racism is bigotry which hurts both parties;

'Economically rational irrational racism', where a stable, non-optimal, racist equilibrium exists in a community where no one is an irrational racist; and

'Fully rational racism', where past injustices have led to present inequalities between the races.

Two classes of argument, logical and moral, are usually offered for the general assumption that racism is inherently irrational. The logical arguments involve accusations concerning stereotyping (category mistakes and empirical errors resulting from overgeneralization) as well as inconsistencies between attitudes and behavior and inconsistencies in beliefs. Moral arguments claim that racism fails as means to well-defined ends, or that racist acts achieve ends other than moral ones.

Since 1971 United Nations resolutions have referred to racism without distinguishing it from racial discrimination. Racism is presented as historically and geographically specific, and as pathological, whereas discrimination is universal and normal. The concept of racism has been of great rhetorical power in mobilising international action for political change in Southern Africa. It has induced more UN member states to become parties to the `International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'. -THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF RACISM AND RACIAL DISCRIMINATION - Michael Banton

One Beige Crayon - Rethinking the Social Construction of Racism 
Patricia Brieschke, Hofstra University, Urban Education, Vol. 33, No. 1, 50-70 (1998)
A predominantly White group of 19 men and women educators in a graduate seminar on qualitative research methods explored the social construction of race through experiential learning of the interview method. This critical analysis of students' struggles with knowledge construction reveals how educators talk about race and racism in the context of their personal and professional lives. The data suggested six ways in which race conflated with racism. In addition, racism was constructed as an exclusively Black and White experience and social agenda in public education.

Lay Theories About White Racists: What Constitutes Racism (and What Doesn't) 
Samuel R. Sommers, Tufts University, Michael I. Norton, Harvard Business School 
Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, Vol. 9, No. 1, 117-138 (2006)
Psychological theories of racial bias assume a pervasive motivation to avoid appearing racist, yet researchers know little regarding laypeople's theories about what constitutes racism. By investigating lay theories of White racism across both college and community samples, we seek to develop a more complete understanding of the nature of race-related norms, motivations, and processes of social perception in the contemporary United States. Factor analyses in Studies 1 and 1a indicated three factors underlying the traits laypeople associate with White racism: evaluative, psychological, and demographic. Studies 2 and 2a revealed a three-factor solution for behaviors associated with White racism: discomfort/unfamiliarity, overt racism, and denial of problem. For both traits and behaviors, lay theories varied by participants' race and their race-related attitudes and motivations. Specifically, support emerged for the prediction that lay theories of racism reflect a desire to distance the self from any aspect of the category ‘racist’. - gpi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/9/1/117

The Denial of Racism - The Role of Humor, Personal Experience, and Self-Censorship 
Brendon Barnes, Ingrid Palmary, Kevin Durrheim, Medical Research Council 
Journal of Language and Social Psychology, Vol. 20, No. 3, 321-338 (2001)
Informed by discursive psychology, this study aimed to identify and explicate those rhetorical maneuvers that function to introduce the issue of race into conversations in the presence of an interracial couple (the first two authors) in the "new South Africa" and to negotiate "race talk" in their presence while distancing the speaker from inferences of racism.

On the Moral Economy of Racism and Racist Rationalizations in Sport - Jonathan A. Long, Leeds Metropolitan University, Mike J. McNamee, University of Wales Swansea 
International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Vol. 39, No. 4, 405-420 (2004)
This article draws on and extends a series of empirical studies into the nature and extent of racism in selected sports and philosophical explorations of certain virtues and vices in sports more generally. In particular, the article explores dispassionately questions of responsibility and culpability for both committed and unacknowledged racism in sports, and critically evaluates sportspersons’ attempts to rationalize it. We argue that it is necessary to examine: some of the underpinning ‘logic’ of empirical and conceptual research; certain unchallenged assumptions about the moral repugnance of racism; and certain undifferentiated moral responses to racisms of lesser and greater viciousness. We examine critically certain definitions of racism, and evaluate the ethical standing of a range of actions and practices that characteristically fall under the labels ‘racist’ and ‘racism’.

Institutionalized Racism: an Analytic Approach - Robert E. Klitgaard, Harvard University 
Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 9, No. 1, 41-49 (1972) 
Simple models are used to describe three kinds of racism: (1) irrational racism, bigotry which hurts both parties; (2) 'economically rational irrational racism', where a stable, non-optimal, racist equilibrium exists in a community where no one is an irrational racist; and (3) 'fully rational racism', where past injustices have led to present inequalities between the races, and neither the 'rationality' of profit maximization nor of Ameri can political principles can avoid racist results. Examples from housing, education, and militant groups are given to illustrate the paradox of fully rational racism for the policy maker. Locating racism solely in the irrational neglects the more fundamental problem of institutionalized racism.

Influence of Perceived Neighborhood Diversity and Racism Experience on the Racial Socialization of Black Youth - J. Derek McNeil, Wheaton College, Howard C. Stevenson, Teresa Herrero-Taylor, Gwendolyn Y. Davis, University of Pennsylvania 
Journal of Black Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 3, 273-290 (2005) 
Research on ecological factors that influence the experience of racial socialization by African American adolescents is limited but necessary in understanding how youth come to be exposed to these messages. This study examines how the cultural diversity of an adolescent’s neighborhood and his or her experience with racism moderates the frequency of experiencing protective and proactive racial socialization communications received from their families. Results reveal that boys are more likely than girls to receive coping with antagonism and cultural pride communications in high culturally diverse neighborhoods when they’ve had a personal experience with racism. Conversely, girls from low culturally diverse neighborhoods, predominantly Black, report receiving more cultural pride messages from family if they had a personal experience with racism. The moderating effects of neighborhood cultural diversity and racism on the racial socialization of Black youth are discussed.

Assessing the Stressful Effects of Racism: A Review of Instrumentation 
Shawn O. Utsey, Seton Hall University - Journal of Black Psychology, Vol. 24, No. 3, (1998)
This article reviewed six instruments developed to assess the psychological processes associated with the experience of racism among African Americans. Although the instruments reviewed in this article are relatively new and have not undergone any extensive psychometric scrutiny, all of them contribute to providing the psychological technology necessary to assess the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral consequences of racial discrimination amongAfricanAmericans. The Racism Reaction Scale (RRS), Perceived Racism Scale (PRS), Index of Race-Related Stress (IRRS), Racism and Life Experience Scale-Brief Version (RaLES-B), Schedule of Racist Events (SRE), and the Perceptions of Racism Scale (PoRS) were all reviewed with regard to their initial development, psychometric properties, and practical use.

Resistance to Affirmative Action - Self-Interest or Racism? 
Cardell K. Jacobson, Department of Sociology, Brigham Young University 
Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 29, No. 2, 306-329 (1985)
Despite the decade-long debate in the media and in the social science literature over affirmative action programs, relatively little information has appeared about attitudes toward these programs. In this article racial threat or self-interest, new symbolic racism, and old-fashioned racism are examined as predictors of attitudes about affirmative action programs. The data are from a national survey conducted in the late fall of 1978 by Louis Harris and Associates for the National Conference of Christians and Jews. Self-interest, new symbolic racism, and old-fashioned racism are all found to be related to attitudes about affirmative action programs and remain so when a variety of control variables are included in the regression analyses. The new racism scale was clearly the best predictor of attitudes about affirmative action programs but is shown to have many underpinnings from traditional sources of racism.

Facing inwards and outwards? Institutional racism, race equality and the role of Black and Asian professional associations - Coretta Phillips, London School of Economics and Political Science, UK - Criminology and Criminal Justice, Vol. 5, No. 4, 357-377 (2005)
This article considers the role and influence of black and Asian professional associations in the criminal justice services, five years on from the pivotal Lawrence Inquiry (1999) and its assertion that ‘institutional racism’ was endemic in the British police service. Drawing on interviews with Chairpersons of seven professional associations, and a small case study of the Association of Black Probation Officers, the article explores their internal supportive function in assisting members who have experienced various forms of occupational racism.

Crack Mothers in the News: A Narrative of Paternalistic Racism 
Marian Meyers, Department of Communication at Georgia State University. 
Journal of Communication Inquiry, Vol. 28, No. 3, 194-216 (2004)
This study examines the story the news tells about "crack mothers" through a narrative analysis of a newspaper series, exploring the major themes and character types from a perspective informed by critical cultural studies and feminist theory. It argues that news studies cannot adequately explore race within representation without also addressing gender and class. The focus of the series analyzed here was the battle to save the children of crack mothers. This narrative of redemption, viewed through the lens of gender, race, and class, is one of a white, professional middle-class working to rescue women and children of the black underclass. The underlying paternalistic racism reflects the intersectionality of gender, race, and class while reinforcing negative stereotypes about African American women.

Modern Racism and Modern Discrimination 
The Effects of Race, Racial Attitudes, and Context on Simulated Hiring Decisions 
John B. McConahay, Duke University 
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 9, No. 4, 551-558 (1983)
Researchers in American race relations have demonstrated the ambivalence white Americans feel toward black Americans. The prejudiced white behaves positively or negatively toward blacks depending on the context of the behavior, while the less prejudiced white behaves more consistently across contexts. In this study, the ambivalence concept was used to demonstrate the construct validity of a relatively nonreactive scale of racial prejudice-the Modern Racism Scale. Eighty-one white college students were pretested on the scale and then evaluated job candidates with identical resumes (except for a picture of a black or white male) under contexts designed to elicit positive or negative discrimination by ambivalent (presumably prejudiced) subjects. As predicted, when the candidate was black, the Modern Racism Scale was negatively correlated with hiring evaluations in the negative context and positively correlated in the positive context. When the job candidate was white, context and the Modern Racism Scale were unrelated to hiring evaluations.

"The Silent Catastrophe" - Institutional Racism in the British Educational System and the Underachievement of Black Boys - Mekada Graham, California State University, Fresno 
Gil Robinson, London Metropolitan University, Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 34, No. 5, (2004)
This article explores the recent increase in permanent exclusions of Black boys in the British educational system. Parents and educators have long been concerned about the education or "miseducation" of Black children. These concerns are reflected in the deep sense of urgency in Black communities about the need for an overall strategy to stem the tide of exclusions of Black boys. The authors argue that the continuing denial of race and racism in British educational policy is reflected in the intransigence of many schools to consider the differential positioning of Black boys in the wider society and its effect on their educational experiences and opportunities.

Conservative Implications of the Irrelevance of Racism in Contemporary African American Cinema - Earl Sheridan, University of North Carolina at Wilmington 
Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 37, No. 2, 177-192 (2006)
Historically, African American cinema has been used to illuminate the scourge of racism in American society. From Oscar Micheaux to Spike Lee, the struggle against racism has been a prominent theme in movies by and about African Americans. It is ironic that since the 1990s, when more Black filmmakers than ever before have reached prominence in Hollywood, race and racism have virtually ceased to be major themes, and the few films that do address racism have faired badly at the box office, even among young Blacks. Why has this occurred? There are several factors at work. One is the cautious nature of the film industry itself when it comes to controversial, socially conscious movies. But perhaps more important is a growing conservatism among some young Blacks and a growing despair among others that lead them to discount the relevance of confronting racism in contemporary society.

Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury - Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress - Robert T. Carter, Teachers College Columbia University, 
The Counseling Psychologist, Vol. 35, No. 1, 13-105 (2007)
The purpose of this article is to discuss the psychological and emotional effects of racism on people of Color. Psychological models and research on racism, discrimination, stress, and trauma will be integrated to promote a model to be used to understand, recognize, and assess race-based traumatic stress to aid counseling and psychological assessment, research, and training. - Racism and Sexism.

Racism or Sexism? Attributional Ambiguity and Simultaneous Membership in Multiple Oppressed Groups - King K.R.
Source: Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Volume 33, Number 2, 1 February 2003,
Abstract: This study examines short-term psychological effects of prejudice attributions on African American women. Black female college students (N = 112) imagined themselves in an audiotaped scenario in which White male students made negative evaluations of them. Participants completed self-report measures of psychological stress and state self-esteem after they rated the likely contributions of various causal attributions to the negative evaluations. Attributions included personal characteristics of the participant and classmates, as well as 3 kinds of prejudice: racism, sexism, and ethgender prejudice (the interaction of racism and sexism). Attributions to racism and ethgender prejudice predicted increased stress and decreased state social self-esteem.

Blacks, Whites, and the New Prejudice: Does Aversive Racism Impact Employee Assessment? - Gilbert, Jacqueline A.; Lownes-Jackson, Millicent
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Volume 35, Number 7, July 2005
Abstract: This research examined how Black and White raters view Black and White employees in terms of salary, training, race, and perceptual characteristics. These characteristics were measured in a primarily Black university with a sample of 283 Black students and in a primarily White university with a sample of 258 White students. Aversive racism was used to explain the lower ratings of Black women in the White sample. Blacks' stronger rating of other Blacks was explained by relational demography, which argues that strength in numbers is evidenced by more positive feelings of minorities toward those of their own groups.

Perpetrators of Prejudice - Prejudice as Group Position: Microfoundations of a Sociological Approach to Racism and Race Relations - Lawrence D. Bobo, Harvard University
Journal of Social Issues 55 (3), 445–472.
Abstract: This research integrates and elaborates the basic premises of Blumer's group position theory of prejudice. It does so in order to make explicit, more fully integrated, and empirically pliable the theoretical foundations of a sociological analysis of the nature of racial prejudice. In so doing, the research identifies important areas of agreement between Gordon Allport's approach to prejudice and that of Blumer. Blumer neither provided a full synthetic statement of his several major pieces on prejudice nor pursued sustained empirical research in the area.

Aversive Racism and Selection Decisions: 1989 and 1999
John F. Dovidio, & Samuel L. Gaertner
Abstract: The present study investigated differences over a 10-year period in whites' self-reported racial prejudice and their bias in selection decisions involving black and white candidates for employment. We examined the hypothesis, derived from the aversive-racism framework, that although overt expressions of prejudice may decline significantly across time, subtle manifestations of bias may persist.

A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health 
Yin Paradies, Centre for Health and Society, University of Melbourne, Australia
Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Australia 
This paper reviews 138 empirical quantitative population-based studies of self-reported racism and health. These studies show an association between self-reported racism and ill health for oppressed racial groups after adjustment for a range of confounders. The strongest and most consistent findings are for negative mental health outcomes and health-related behaviours, with weaker associations existing for positive mental health outcomes, self-assessed health status, and physical health outcomes. Most studies in this emerging field have been published in the past 5 years and have been limited by a dearth of cohort studies, a lack of psychometrically validated exposure instruments, poor conceptualization and definition of racism, conflation of racism with stress, and debate about the aetiologically relevant period for self-reported racism. Future research should examine the psychometric validity of racism instruments and include these instruments, along with objectively measured health outcomes, in existing large-scale survey vehicles as well as longitudinal studies and studies involving children. There is also a need to gain a better understanding of the perception, attribution, and reporting of racism, to investigate the pathways via which self-reported racism affects health, the interplay between mental and physical health outcomes, and exposure to intra-racial, internalized, and systemic racism.

GENDERED RACISM AND THE PRODUCTION OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCE
Media representations and identity work among “immigrant youth” in contemporary Sweden
Anna Bredström, Linköping University, Sweden
Presented at Gender and Power in the New Europe, the 5th European Feminist Research Conference August 20-24, 2003 Lund University, Sweden
When Political Scientist Susan Moller Okin poses the question ”Is multiculturalism bad for women?” she re-opens a debate in the Anglo-Saxon countries around issues of race, ethnicity and gender. In contemporary Swedish gender studies and feminist debates this question remains rather unexplored. 
With the recent hullabaloo concerning so-called honour killings and other forms of allegedly culturally induced oppression against “ethnic” women – predominately from the “Muslim world” – the ways in which gender and ethnicity intersect can no longer go unaddressed.The aim of this article is to reflect upon the racialised construction of “cultural difference” and its repercussions on “immigrant” youth living in Sweden. The article is based on two case studies. Drawing from critical scholarship on ethnicity and racism, as well as from postcolonial feminist theory, the first part of this article surveys and analyses hegemonic racialised discourses in mainstream media and its gendered manifestations.

Citizenship education as placebo - ‘standards’, institutional racism and education policy 
David Gillborn, Institute of Education, University of London 
Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, Vol. 1, No. 1, 83-104 (2006)
Citizenship education is now a required component of the national curriculum that must be taught by all state-funded schools in England. It is constantly highlighted by policy makers as a major innovation that promotes social cohesion in general, and race equality in particular. At the same time, however, the government has continued to pursue a so-called ‘standards’ agenda that emphasizes a hierarchy of schools based on their students’ performance in high stakes tests and promotes increased selection that is known to disadvantage Black students. Consequently, the principal education policy strategies are themselves revealed as potentially racist by the government's own definition. It is in this context that the promotion of citizenship education can be seen as a public policy placebo, that is a pretend treatment for institutional racism that gives the impression of action but is, in fact, without substance or effect. - Racism and Sexism.

Psychological Aspects of Racism in Organizations 
Roderick J. Watts, DePaul University 
Robert T. Carter, Teachers College, Columbia University 
Group & Organization Management, Vol. 16, No. 3, 328-344 (1991)
In this study a multilevel conceptual framework is developed for the study of racism in organization as seen by African-Americans. Three levels are defined: institutional racism, racial climate, and personal discrimination. Perceptions of racism on each of these levels are related to racial identity, using the Racial Identity Attitudes Scale, to determine if racial identity is associated with perceptions of racism. The results, based on a sample of Blacks in a state bureaucracy, indicated that racial identity was the best predictor of perceptions of racial climate and personal discrimination. For example: Blacks who reported Pre-Encounter racial identity attitudes (i.e., those who were White-identified and Black-rejective) saw less racism in the workplace, whereas those who endorsed Internalization attitudes (i.e., those who were Black-identified but not anti-White) saw more. In addition, two factors were identified in racial climate: (a) Experience and Intensity of Racism and (b) Management Power and Policy.

Discourse and the Denial of Racism - Teun A. van Dijk, UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM 
Discourse & Society, Vol. 3, No. 1, 87-118 (1992)
Within the broader framework of a research programme on the reproduction of racism in discourse and communication, the present article examines the prominent role of the denial of racism, especially among the elites, in much contemporary text and talk about ethnic relations. After a conceptual analysis of denial strategies in interpersonal impression formation on the one hand, and within the social-political context of minority and immigration management on the other, various types of denial are examined in everyday conversations, press reports and parliamentary debates. Among these forms of denial are disclaimers, mitigation, euphemism, excuses, blaming the victim, reversal and other moves of defence, face-keeping and positive self-presentation in negative discourse about minorities, immigrants and (other) anti-racists.

Racism in the News: A Critical Discourse Analysis of News Reporting in Two Australian Newspapers - PETER TEO, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION, SINGAPORE 
Discourse & Society, Vol. 11, No. 1, 7-49 (2000)
The aim of this study is to probe for ideological construction of racism imbricated within the structure of newspaper reporting. The study focuses on news reports relating to a Vietnamese gang in Australia whose violent and drug-dealing activities have received publicity in two Sydney-based newspapers: The Sydney Morning Herald and The Daily Telegraph. The analysis of these reports adheres to the analytic paradigm of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and is undertaken in two stages. The first, a general characterization of the newspaper discourse, reveals evidence of a systematic `othering' and stereotyping of the ethnic community by the `white' majority. This is followed by a comparative analysis of two reports, which surfaces evidence of a racist ideology manifest in an asymmetrical power discourse between the (ethnic) law-breakers and the (white) law-enforcers. The study concludes with a discussion to explain the evidence of `Racism in the News', which both reflects and reinforces the marginalization of recent Vietnamese migrants into Australia.

The relationship of racism to appraisals and coping in a community sample - Brondolo E, Thompson S, Brady N, Appel R, Cassells A, Tobin JN, Sweeney M. 
Department of Psychology, St John's University, Jamaica, NY 11439, USA.
Ethn Dis. 2005 Autumn;15(4 Suppl 5):S5-14-9.
Ethnicity-related maltreatment (racism) is a significant stressor for many Americans and may contribute to racial disparities in health. Mechanisms linking this stressor to health status are not yet understood. This study tests the hypothesis that lifetime exposure to racism influences individuals' appraisals of and coping responses to new episodes of maltreatment. Participants included 420 Black and Latino patients and staff of community primary care practices in New York City. Participants completed the Brief Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire--Community Version. They also completed measures of appraisals and anger coping modified to inquire about responses to new episodes of ethnicity-related maltreatment. Individuals who had higher levels of lifetime exposure to discrimination were more likely to experience new episodes as threatening and potentially harmful. Exposure to ethnic discrimination was also positively related to the use of anger coping styles, but the magnitude of the relationship varied depending on the type of discrimination. Individuals who had been exposed to higher levels of workplace discrimination were more likely to suppress anger in new situations. Those who were exposed to ethnicity-related social exclusion or harassment were more likely to confront others and aggressively express their feelings. The significance of the relationship held even when controlling for mood and personality variables that might account for both racism and coping. No differences were found between Blacks and Latinos in the relationship of racism to appraisals and coping. These findings add to the growing empirical literature on strategies for coping with racism. - ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Covert Racism: An Application of Essed's Analysis in a South African Context 
J. Louw-Potgieter, Department of Industrial Psychology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag XI 7, Bellville 7535, South Africa' 
Journal of Language and Social Psychology, Vol. 8, No. 5, 307-319 (1989)
This paper has a two-fold aim: to illustrate the use of qualitative, linguistic data in the study of overt racism; and to focus on the experience of black people at the receiving end of racist acts. Accounts of the experience of covert racism in the context of an 'open' university in South Africa were examined in terms of a method based on attributional principles (Essed, 1988). It was found that black students' accounts of racist experiences did not constitute incoherent stories containing snap judgments about an actor's racism, but followed explicit and logical rules. In addition, these accounts illustrated that when judging an incident as racist or not, black students showed a high degree of tolerance (i.e. testing all possible alternative interpretations before deciding that an incident could be construed as racist) and made clear distinctions between racist and non-racist incidents (i.e. did not react in an 'over-sensitive' manner by classifying all discriminatory instances as racist). It was also found that most students expressed a sense of powerlessness and resignation regarding covert racism on campus.

Racism and Mental Health - Evelyn Barbee, RN, PhD, FAAN 
Department of Nursing, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences in Boston, Massachusetts 
Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, Vol. 8, No. 6, 194-199 (2002)
Race and its associated concept, racism, have long been linked to social and health problems. In this article, racism as a social construct is defined, and some of the literature on racism and mental health is reviewed.

Let's Kick Racism Out of Football— and the Lefties Too! 
Responses to Lee Bowyer on a West Ham Web Site 
Andy Ruddock. John Moores University in Liverpool, United Kingdoma.ruddock@ljmu.ac.uk 
Journal of Sport & Social Issues, Vol. 29, No. 4, 369-385 (2005)
This article examines how the empirical study of football fans can inform contemporary debates in critical audience research, particularly around issues of pleasure and cultural citizenship. In January 2003, West Ham United signs Lee Bowyer; a controversial move, given the accusations of racism surrounding the player. Although football is often championed as a potent arena for debate and negotiation in cultural politics, Web-based responses to Bowyer among West Hamfans demonstrate how these issues can be subordinated within essentially conservative discourses of belonging. This is due, in part, to structural similarities between fandom and populism, stressing negative modes of identification and desire to return to a mythic past. Consequently, pleasure and politics coexist but do not meet in a West Ham supporting vernacular that has little to say about racism.

KICHING RACISM OUT OF SOCCER IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND - John Horne 
Journal of Sport & Social Issues, Vol. 20, No. 1, 45-68 (1996)
This article focuses attention on an ongoing antiracism campaign in association football (soccer) launched in England and Wales in the fall of 1993 and subsequently in Scotland in January 1994. The "Let's Kick Racism out of Football" (LKROOF) campaign is the product of the London-based "race" equality organization, the Commission for Racial Equality, working in conjunction with the football associations of England, Wales, and Scotland. The article argues for the need for campaigns such as LKROOF to recognize the specificity of racism in different social (national/regional) contexts. It has been suggested that Scotland often "appears to contradict claims about trends in British soccer culture which are rooted in English evidence." The author will investigate the question "Is this also the case for the issue of racism in Scottish soccer?"

Racism Stress Management - Racial Socialization Beliefs and the Experience of Depression and Anger in African American Youth - Youth & Society, Vol. 29, No. 2, 197-222 (1997)
HOWARD C. STEVENSON, ANGELA BISHOP, University of Pennsylvania 
JOCELYN REED, University of Maryland, PRESTON BODISON, Temple University 
The psychological effects of living in a racially hostile context are multiple. African American adolescents who respond to racial intolerance with anger and depression are silenced and vulnerable to misinterpretation and misdiagnosis. Adolescents who believe the African American family has the responsibility of raising children to be aware of societal hostilities and cultural strengths are the focus of this article. Gender differences were found, and results suggest that beliefs in various types of racial socialization differentially contribute to positive psychological outcomes for adolescents.

‘Hottentots’ and the evolution of European racism - Nicholas Hudson, University of British Columbia - Journal of European Studies, Vol. 34, No. 4, 308-332 (2004)
Springing from the argument in recent scholarship that ‘race’ is a doctrine that emerged only in the post-Enlightenment, this essay develops a theory concerning the ideological history of ‘racism’, understood in its modern Western sense. While it is impossible to examine all forms of Western racism, the author focuses on evolving reactions in European travel accounts, belles-lettres and anthropology to the Khoikhoi, popularly known as ‘Hottentots’, a people that became proverbial as the most wretched and degraded of all ‘savages’. The question posed is why the Khoikhoi, a relatively peripheral and cooperative people, attracted this virulent hatred. 
Challenging the assumption of the small body of modern scholarship on the Khoikhoi, I maintain that this spite derived not simply from a sense of the Hottentots’ ‘Otherness’, but more accurately from the awareness that this people upset models of ethnicity that supported the Western vision of the non-European world. Europeans needed to neutralize the ideological threat represented by the Khoikhoi, a programme that culminated in the development of the modern science of ‘race’. ‘Race’, and its corresponding ideology of ‘racism’, I conclude, involves not merely the exclusion, but an approximation and appropriation of the ‘Other’ into Western systems of thought: the ultimate and fatal destiny of this highly distinct and independent culture.

Common Sense versus Political Discourse - Debating Racism and Multicultural Society in Dutch Talk Shows - Andra Leurdijk - European Journal of Communication, Vol. 12, No. 2, (1997)
In the past few years a considerable amount of literature has appeared concerning talk shows, in particular those with active participation of studio audiences. The evaluation of these shows in the light of their contribution to mediated public debates, varies from praise for presumed postmodern qualities to utter condemnation for their trivialization of everything deemed serious. This article confronts these views with an analysis of Dutch audience discussion shows dealing with racism and a multicultural society. The main question is in what ways do audience discussion shows offer a forum for public debate on racism and a multicultural society in the Netherlands? This question is answered by looking at the numbers of white and ethnic minority participants and the perspectives included in the debates.

Channeling blackness, challenging racism: a theatrical response - Yeidy M. Rivero, Indiana University, USA - Global Media and Communication, Vol. 2, No. 3, (2006)
This article calls attention to the pressing need to explore commercial television’s racial, ethnic, cultural, and gendered representations across the Latin American and Spanish Caribbean region as well as documenting the ways in which non-white citizens are (and have been) coping with their social and televisual marginalization. The performance piece You Don’t Look Like provides a unique opportunity to examine how those who have been excluded from and reconfigured in the local televisual frame have negotiated their invisibility and their constructed Otherness. By reenacting some of Puerto Rico’s scenarios of blackness, You Don’t Look Like questions and denounces the positionality of black citizens in the island’s society, culture, and on television. The article argues that both directly and indirectly, Puerto Rico’s scenarios of blackness not only imply specific geographical sites within the island but also the racialized bodies and cultures that flow back and forth across the Caribbean Sea.

Anti-Muslim Racism and the European Security State 
Liz Fekete, Institute of Race Relations, IRR’s European Race Audit, liz@irr.org.uk 
Race & Class, Vol. 46, No. 1, 3-29 (2004) © 2004 Institute of Race Relations
Across Europe, the ‘war on terror’ is having a major impact on race relations policies. New legislation, policing and counter-terrorist measures are casting Muslims, whether settled or immigrant, as the ‘enemy within’. In the process, the parameters of xeno-racism, which targets impoverished asylum seekers, have been extended to Muslim communities. Islam is seen as a threat to Europe, which is responding not only with draconian attacks on civil rights but also with moves to roll back multiculturalism and promote monocultural homogeneity through assimilation. Hence ‘integration’ measures - like France’s banning of the hijab - become an adjunct to anti-terrorist law. This is not just ‘Islamophobia’ but structured anti-Muslim racism. - rac.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/46/1/3

Challenging racism strategies for the '80s 
A. Sivanandan, Institute of Race Relations 
Race & Class, Vol. 25, No. 2, 1-11 (1983) © 1983 Institute of Race Relations
This is a revised version of a talk given on 12 March 1983 at the Greater London Council Ethnic Minorities Unit Consultation on Challenging Racism.

Convergence Between Racial and Political Identities - Boundary Erasure or Aversive Racism? 
GAIL E. COOVER, LINDA C. GODBOLD 
Communication Research, Vol. 25, No. 6, 669-688 (1998) 
The relationship between race group membership and political orientation is considered with respect to the accommodation of White identity in media representations of Blacks. Participants watched a brief video featuring a pair of commentators—either a White liberal and a White conservative, a White liberal and a Black conservative, or a Black liberal and a White conservative. The portrayal of the relationship (agreement, disagreement) was also manipulated. Preferences for the recial outgroup were a function of the recial/political pairings. The dimension of race dominated the dimension of political orientation in participants' preferences for the outgroup and their judgments of similarity between interracial pairs of commentators. Results are consistent with aversive racism and previously untested assertions about White viewers' preferences for accommodating representations of Blacks.

Racism and Rationality - The Need for a New Critique - David Theo Goldberg 
Arizona State University, Tempe - Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Vol. 20, No. 3, (1990)
Two classes of argument, logical and moral, are usually offered for the general assumption that racism is inherently irrational. The logical arguments involve accusations concerning stereotyping (category mistakes and empirical errors resulting from overgeneralization) as well as inconsistencies between attitudes and behavior and inconsistencies in beliefs. Moral arguments claim that racism fails as means to well-defined ends, or that racist acts achieve ends other than moral ones. Based on a rationality-neutral definition of racism, it is argued in this article that none of these arguments establish exhaustively that racism is inherently irrational. Ways are suggested to proceed in condemning racism(s) as morally and socially unacceptable, independent of the irrationality claim.

Racism, Ethnicity and Criminology. Developing Minority Perspectives 
Coretta Phillips, London School of Economics and Political Science.
Benjamin Bowling, King's College, London. 
In empirical and theoretical criminology references to racism and ethnicity are commonplace, although much discussion has centred on the narrowly defined ‘race and crime’ debate. In an attempt to move beyond this debate, which is focused on whether certain ethnic minorities are over-represented in the prison population because of elevated rates of offending or because of discriminatory treatment in the criminal justice system, this paper proposes the formulation of minority perspectives in criminology.

Unconscious Racism: Scrutinizing Judicial Reasoning in 'Stolen Generation' Cases 
Elena Marchetti, Janet Ransley, Griffith University, Australia 
Social & Legal Studies, Vol. 14, No. 4, 533-552 (2005)
Like other western legal systems, Australian law is based on notions of the rule of law, justice and equality. Legal formalistic ideology would have us believe that as long as the law as it appears 'on the books' is applied equally for all, justice will prevail. For Indigenous Australian people, formal equality means that their claims for land, compensation and the recognition of their culture must be assessed through the eyes of white judges in white courts. Even when those judges strive to apply the law equally, they will inevitably be applying Eurocentric beliefs and values. In two recent significant cases concerning Indigenous claims for their removal from their families as children, those beliefs and values have tended to invalidate not only the legal claims themselves, but also aspects of the Indigenous culture. This article argues that the formal application of legal principles to these claims by Australian courts and judges leads to the exclusion of Indigenous narratives, which ultimately can be construed as evidence of unconscious racism. Charles Lawrence's cultural meaning test is used to critique the reasoning of the judges in two leading Australian cases concerning the 'stolen generation' and to expose the unconscious racism that still exists in the Australian liberal legal system.

The Contract Compliance Policy: an Illustration of the Persistence of Racism as the Failure of Modernity - Joe Charlesworth, Commission for Racial Equality 
Véronique Voruz, Queen Mary and Westfield College, London 
Social & Legal Studies, Vol. 7, No. 2, 193-212 (1998)
This paper is a study of the contract compliance policy, a policy aiming at imple menting more racial equality by using public procurement as an incentive for com panies to adopt an attitude of non-discrimination in employment. This policy was recently the subject of the attention of the Commission for Racial Equality. This paper presents the policy, delineates its legal framework and sums up the results of the research carried out by the Commission as to its effectiveness. It also examines the conformity of the policy with European legislation in the field of public procurement. An attempt is then made to account for the relative failure of the policy in terms of the tensions inhabiting the modern nation as well as the European Union. Namely, racism - and the subsequent low effectiveness of racial discrimination policies - will be envisaged as the outcome of the irreducible contradiction between the modernist desire to accommodate all particularities since the modern nation claims to embody universality, while the need for a community of blood and soil as between members of the same nation - the justification of the persistence of the nation-state as the unit of government - requires that racial others be always considered as less than nation als.

Racism, Capitalism, and the Schools 
Understanding Demographic Data and Educational Change in Buffalo, New York (1930-1977) 
Charles Reitz, Buffalo, New York - Urban Education, Vol. 18, No. 4, 490-502 (1984)
The evidence supports the conclusion that racism in Buffalo has been sustained by social, political, and educational structures.

Sophistication and the Antecedents of Whites' Racial Policy Attitudes: Racism, Ideology, and Affirmative Action in America - CHRISTOPHER M. FEDERICO and JIM SIDANIUS 
Abstract: A number of researchers have argued that the effects of prejudice on the racial policy attitudes and general political beliefs of white Americans may be restricted to the poorly educated and politically unsophisticated. In contrast, rather than being motivated by prejudice, the racial policy attitudes and ideological values of the politically sophisticated white Americans should be more firmly informed and motivated by the tolerant values at the heart of American political culture. These values include such things as individualism, notions of fair play, and devotion to the principle of equality of opportunity. We tested this hypothesis using white respondents from the 1986 and 1992 National Election Studies. Our evidence generally indicated that racial policy attitudes and political ideology were more powerfully associated with ideologies of racial dominance and superiority among politically sophisticated white Americans than among political unsophisticated white Americans.

The racism scene and the multicultural project: Quebec as an example - Philippe Bataille 
Social Science Information, Vol. 37, No. 2, 381-399 (1998) 
In crisis-ridden social and cultural contexts, racism tends to be translated into action. This article, based on a study of Quebec in particular, looks at the political option of multiculturalism as a possible institutional and political response to racism. When the different levels of political organization of a society - in the present case, the Federal Government of Canada and the Provincial State of Quebec - are divided ideologically, a policy such as multiculturalism, conceived as a political means of handling immigration, is transformed into a political issue, generating a peculiar type of political crisis which in turn nourishes the cultural crisis.

Storylines in Racialized Times: Racism and Anti-Racism in Toronto's Social Services 
Donna Baines, Labour Studies, McMaster University, Hamilton,
British Journal of Social Work (2002) 32, 185-199
Summary: In the late 1990s I conducted an ethnographic study of how the everyday work world of left-of-centre social workers was socially organized around and by race, class and gender (Baines, 2001). According to my data, race was the most contested relation in the race, class, gender constellation. One aspect of this contested context was that the participants in my study spoke about race at the most length, in the greatest depth, and produced the most innovative critiques and insightful descriptions. While the research participants rarely spoke of race without simultaneously invoking class and gender, this article focuses on the race section of my larger race, class and gender story. The volume and quality of the data concerning race merited its own discussion particularly in light of the ongoing debates concerning how to move forward with an anti-racism project in this era of post-equity, neo-liberalism. This article details the actual form and content of racism and anti-racism in social work agencies, and presents some suggestions for local change strategies, as well as a larger framing for emancipatory social work practice.

What kind of people are we? 'Race', anti-racism and social welfare research 
M Boushel, School for Policy Studies, University of Bristol, 8 Prior Road, Bristol BS8 1TZ, UK
British Journal of Social Work (2000) 30, 71-89
Summary: This article argues that, to provide reliable and nationally relevant information on which to base policy and practice and to afford the Black population equal access to knowledge about its social realities, social welfare research needs to include accurate representations of minority ethnic groups and their changing needs. Using child welfare and community care as examples, a brief research review indicates the continued scarcity of such research and its potential benefits. The methodological supports available to researchers seeking to include minority ethnic populations and anti-racist perspectives are considered, and it is concluded that such supports are limited and patchy. In exploring the reasons for this, the author identifies some of the political, personal and technical challenges an anti-racist approach presents. The terms 'experiential affinity' and 'experiential interdependence' are introduced to help conceptualize the knowledge and power differentials which may impede researchers pursuing anti-discriminatory aims, and a 'costs and benefits' framework is suggested to help understand and confront these issues.

Avoiding the Issue - Racism and Administrative Responsibility in Public Administration 
Jennifer Alexander, Cleveland State University 
The American Review of Public Administration, Vol. 27, No. 4, 343-361 (1997)
This article explicates the meaning of race and its institutionalization within public administration theory and practice. An argument is presented that conceptualizations of administrative responsibility in public administration have oversimplified or ignored what Gunnar Myrdal described more than 50 years ago as "the American dilemma. " Racism is an integral and often invisible component of the customary morality—a historically constructed system of meaning that establishes the customs and practices of a people. The author demonstrates that within public administration theory, administrative responsibility originates in customary morality.

`Race' and Racism: An Attempt to Organize Difference 
Farhad N. Dalal, North East London Psychotherapy and Counselling Association, 51 Evering Road, Stoke Newington, London N16 7PU, UK - Group Analysis, Vol. 26, No. 3, 277-290 (1993)
This article addresses the issue of `race' and racism in the context of Group-analytic psychotherapy. My contention is that at present there is no specific Group-analytic understanding of racism. 7he article is aimed at group conductors, focusing on what terms might be used to view these issues as they manifest in groups. It challenges the notion of `race' as an objective category and examines ways of viewing the phenomena of `race' and racism as dynamic processes rather than as fixed and concrete events.

The Emergence of Racism in Group Analysis - Dick Blackwell 
Medical Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture 
Group Analysis, Vol. 27, No. 2, 197-210 (1994)
Group analysis is particularly concerned with the permeation of the individual by the dynamics of her' social context. In a racist society the dynamics of racism will be internalized by all its members. We should expect this dynamic to emerge in an analytic group and should be prepared to analyse it. An example of the emergence of racism in an analytic group reveals the importance of group composition; the relationship between cultural difference and political and cultural domination; the responsibilities and self-awareness of the group conductor, and the psychodynamics of the victim-persecutor scenario.

Racism in Children's and Young People's Literature in the Western World 
Joerg Becker, Hessische Stiftung Friedens- und Konfliktsforschung, Frankfurt 
Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 10, No. 3, 295-303 (1973)
In nearly all young people's books, historical and social processes are viewed from an individualistic perspective; thus it is assumed that racial problems can be solved on the individual level only. This is usually done by appealing to pity and charity, thereby degrading the coloured people to mere ob jects. 
The Negro-African is often associated with ani mal behaviour and instinct. Both the Negro- African and the Afro-American are rarely por trayed as autonomous, independent human beings; initiative and activity are the domain of the white. The Afro-American is not allowed to display a value system of his own, he appears as a human being who has completely internalized the value system of white America.

Media, Racism and Public Health Psychology 
Raymond Nairn, University of Auckland, New Zealand 
Frank Pega, Tim McCreanor, Massey University, New Zealand 
Jenny Rankine, Words & Pictures Media Consultancy, New Zealand 
Angela Barnes, Massey University, New Zealand 
Journal of Health Psychology, Vol. 11, No. 2, 183-196 © 2006 SAGE Publications
International literature has established that racism contributes to ill-health of migrants, ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples. Racism generally negates wellbeing, adversely affecting physical and psychological health. Numerous studies have shown that media contribute marginalizing particular ethnic and cultural groups depicting them primarily as problems for and threats to the dominant.

Psychiatric Contributions to Understanding Racism 
Laurie Jo Moore, Auckland University School of Medicine, New Zealand 
Transcultural Psychiatry, Vol. 37, No. 2, 147-183 (2000) © 2000 McGill University
This article reviews the theoretical contributions of psychiatrists to understanding racism. Racism is poorly understood because it is a tool of socio-economic oppression and it serves those in power to obscure its nature. Confounding factors are examined from several perspectives including coercive behaviors characteristic of unequal relationships, ethnocentric blindness, ignorance about socio-economic oppression and the racialization of poverty. The damaging effects of racism on physical and mental health are reviewed, as well as the complicity of medicine and psychiatry in dominant cultural racist practices. Despite this complicity, psychiatry has contributed to psychological theories of the origins of racism. Psychoanalytic perspectives argue that racism is not a problem of certain people, but a problem intrinsic to human character and unconscious dynamics.

Ideology, Camouflage or Contingency? Racism in British Psychiatry - Roland Littlewood, M.B., D.PHIL.- Transcultural Psychiatry, Vol. 30, No. 3, (1993) © 1993 McGill University
"...Are we so sure that the racist form of intolerance results chiefly from the wrong ideas of this or that group of people about the dependence of cultural evolution on organic evolution? Might not these ideas be simply ideological camouflage for more concrete oppositions based on a desire to subjugate other groups and maintain a posi tion of power?" - tps.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/3/243 

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