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SEXUAL ASSAULT

Sociologyindex, Sociology Books 2012

Sexual assault is a broader classification of sexual offence than ‘rape’. Rape occurred only when sexual penetration was involved, but this new definition of a sexual assault is broader.

It is an assault that has as its consequence a violation of the sexual integrity of the victim. This is now the defined criminal code offence.

Black and White College Women's Perceptions of Sexual Harassment. Sex Roles, 40 (7-8)
Shelton, J. Nicole; Chavous, Tabbye M. 
Abstract: This study examined how racial factors influenced college women's perceptions of sexual harassment. Specifically, we examined whether Black (N=46) and White (n=89) women perceive unsolicited sexual behavior between a Black woman and a Black man different from such behavior between a Black woman and a White man. The data suggest that sexual harassment between Black women and men are trivialized compared to sexual behavior between Black women and White men. The findings convey the necessity of studying sexual harassment for women of color.

Sexual Assault of College Women: A Feminist Interpretation of a Routine Activities Analysis 
Elizabeth Ehrhardt Mustaine, Richard Tewksbury - Criminal Justice Review, Vol. 27, No. 1, 89-123 (2002) © 2002 Georgia State University, College of Health and Human Sciences
Sexual assault has been a frequent topic of research for several decades, especially for feminist researchers. Generally, feminist research suggest that there are high levels of sexual assault against women because of a patriarchal, rape-supportive culture. However, not all women have the same heightened risk for sexual assault victimization. Wh the feminist perspective does not adequately account for are the variations in rape victimization rates across the female population. This is where the importance of theory that focuses on individual statuses and lifestyles becomes important. By combining the two perspectives, explanations of sexual assault victimization can be made more vigorous and instructive. The data in this article come from 674 college and university women in 12 southern postsecondary institutions in eight states who completed an in-depth survey. Analyses focused on sexual assault in general and an more serious forms of sexual assault. Findings suggest tat the combination of feminism and routine activity theory enhances explanation of sexual assault victimization risks. Sexual assault victimization risks were influenced primarily by the amount of exposure that respondents had to potential offenders, especially to rape-supportive male per groups. Additionally, the finding between the models of differing degrees of sexual assault victimization are not particularly different. - cjr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/27/1/89

Wardens’ Perceptions of Inmate Fear of Sexual Assault: A Research Note 
Christopher Hensley, Morehead State University, ch.hensley@morehead-st.edu 
Richard Tewksbury, University of Louisville 
The Prison Journal, Vol. 85, No. 2, 198-203 (2005) © 2005 SAGE Publications
Research on inmate fear of sexual assault is sparse in sociological and correctional journals. Studies that examine wardens’ perceptions of inmate fear of sexual assault are nonexistent in the literature. Therefore, using data gathered from 226 wardens of state correctional institutions, this study examines which demographic and institutional factors significantly affect wardens’ perceptions of inmate fear of sexual assault within their institutions. Sex of the institution, security level, and number of officially reported inmate sexual assaults within the facilities were the most salient predictors of wardens’ beliefs in the prevalence of inmate fear of sexual assault. Policy implications are also addressed. - tpj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/85/2/198

Attributions of Blame in Sexual Assault to Perpetrators and Victims of Both Genders 
Authors: Gwendolyn L. Gerber; Joseph M. Cronin; Heidi J. Steigman
Source: Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Volume 34, Number 10, October 2004
Abstract: Previous research found that men attribute more blame to rape victims than do women; men also attribute less blame to perpetrators. In rape situations with a male perpetrator and a female victim, the roles of perpetrator and victim are confounded with gender category. To determine whether men are more lenient toward perpetrators or toward other males, the present study examined attributions of blame in scenarios that varied the gender category of both perpetrator and victim. Results showed that men's and women's attributions of blame to perpetrators were based on the role that was enacted, rather than gender per se: Men attributed less blame to perpetrators than did women, regardless of the perpetrator's gender category, indicating that men were more lenient toward perpetrators than were women. In addition, when the victim was female, the perpetrator was blamed more and the victim was blamed less than when the victim was male. - ingentaconnect.com

Alcohol and Sexual Assault in a National Sample of College Women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14 (6), pp. 603-625 1999 - Ullman, Sarah E.; Karabatsos, George; Koss, Mary P. 
Abstract: Alcohol is associated with risk of sexual assault among women and with increased risk of experiencing completed rape once attacked. In particular alcohol use prior to sexual assault by both the offenders and victims may affect the severity of the sexual victimization experienced by women. Little research has explored the mechanisms (e.g. social context, behavior) through which alcohol may affect outcomes of sexual attacks using multivariate analysis. This showed that the propensity of a victim to abuse alcohol and both victim and offender alcohol use prior to attack were directly associated with more severe attacks. This study suggests that alcohol plays both direct and indirect roles in the outcomes of sexual assaults.

Sexual Assault Prevention Programs: Current Issues, Future Directions, and the Potential Efficacy of Interventions with Women. Clinical Psychology Review, 19 (7), pp. 739-771. 1999.
Yeater, Elizabeth A.; O'Donohue, William. 
Abstract: This study reviews the current problems facing the primary prevention of sexual assault. Effective sexual assault prevention programs for both males and females have been slow to develop due to the fact that studies have not identified the etiologies of sexual assault. Although dissemination of prevention programs has become increasingly popular in recent years, few programs have evaluated the extent to which the constructs identified in the interventions are effective at decreasing rates of sexual assault. This article discussed previous studies in sexual assault prevention programs, methodological and conceptual problems that currently exist in the field, pragmatic difficulties regarding program implementation and evaluation, and recommendations for future research with an emphasis on interventions with female participants.

Sexual Assault of Women - Prevention Efforts and Risk Factors 
Ingrid SÖChting, Richmond Hospital 
Nichole Fairbrother, William J. Koch, University of British Columbia Hospital 
Violence Against Women, Vol. 10, No. 1, 73-93 (2004) © 2004 SAGE Publications
Most North American universities offer sexual assault prevention programs focusing on attitude change. However, the few program outcome evaluations suggest that these programs may not be effective. This review summarizes the research on sexual assault program evaluation. It is apparent that the most promising avenue for sexual assault prevention may be self-defense training, which is presently not an integral component of typical prevention programs. The substantial body of research on risk factors for sexual assault is also reviewed, and it is concluded that existing rape prevention programs could be improved by focusing on these factors. - vaw.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/1/73

The association of sexual assault and attempted suicide within the community
J. R. Davidson, D. C. Hughes, L. K. George and D. G. Blazer 
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center
BACKGROUND: Lifetime community rates of attempted suicide were compared between those who reported a history of sexual assault and a control group without such a history. METHODS: The 2918 respondents in the Duke University Epidemiological Catchment Area Study were placed into groups with reported sexual assault (n = 67) and those with no known history of such (n = 2851). Multivariate and bivariate procedures were used to examine the relation between sexual assault and attempted suicide. RESULTS: Subjects reporting a history of sexual assault were more likely to be female, younger, and to report higher rates of lifetime suicide attempt and post-traumatic stress symptoms; no differences were found in the number of chronic medical disorders, major depression, substance abuse or substance dependence, or panic attacks. Nine (14.9%) of the 67 index group subjects reported a suicide attempt, 4 of whom reported their first sexual assault as occurring before age 16 years. A sexual assault history was associated with increased prevalence of lifetime suicide attempt after controlling for sex, age, education, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and psychiatric disorder. Findings were similar in the female-only subsample (n = 1778). For women, the odds of attempting suicide was 3 to 4 times greater when the first reported sexual assault occurred prior to age 16 years compared with age 16 years or older. CONCLUSIONS: Sexual assault is associated with an increased lifetime rate of attempted suicide. In women, a history of sexual trauma before age 16 years is a particularly strong correlate of attempted suicide. - archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/53/6/550

Sexual Assault of Young Children as Reported to Law Enforcement: Victim, Incident, and Offender Characteristics
Presents findings from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) regarding sexual assault, especially of young children. The data are based on reports from law enforcement agencies of 12 States and covers the years 1991 through 1996. The report presents sexual assault in 4 categories: forcible rape, forcible sodomy, sexual assault with an object, and forcible fondling. Findings include statistics on the incidence of sexual assault, the victims, their offenders, gender, response to these crimes, locality, time of incident, the levels of victim injury, victims' perceptions of offenders' ages, and victim-offender relationships, and other detailed characteristics. Highlights include the following: 
Sixty-seven percent of all victims of sexual assault reported to law enforcement agencies were juveniles (under the age of 18); 34% of all victims were under age 12. 
One of every seven victims of sexual assault reported to law enforcement agencies were under age 6. 
Forty percent of the offenders who victimized children under age 6 were juveniles (under the age of 18) - U.S. Department of Justice - Bureau of Justice Statistics - ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/saycrle.htm

Saints, Sluts and Sexual Assault: Rethinking the Relationship Between Sex, Race and Gender 
Anne Cossins, University of New South Wales, Australia 
Social & Legal Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1, 77-103 (2003) © 2003 SAGE Publications
This article considers how legal cultures construct different female subjectivities, using an Australian case study that documented the differential treatment of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal complainants within sexual assault trials. In particular, the article analyses the cultural significance of the concepts of sex and race within the sexual assault trial by comparing and contrasting the analytic utility of the sexed bodies approach and the concept of gender for understanding different women's experiences. It argues that neither of these approaches adequately describes the experiences of black and indigenous women and, instead, presents the concept of convergence for explaining the interactions of sex and race and revealing the unique vulnerabilities of black and indigenous women within legal cultures. - sls.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/12/1/77

Constructing Coercion - The Organization of Sexual Assault 
Brian A. Monahan, University of Delaware 
Joseph A. Marolla, David G. Bromley, Virginia Commonwealth University 
Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, Vol. 34, No. 3, (2005) © 2005 SAGE Publications
There is an abundance of research on how perpetrators organize and orchestrate their activity during the commission of burglary, robbery, and homicide. By contrast, there is very little research on how perpetrators organize sexual assaults. Based on interviews with 33 incarcerated rapists who acted alone and had little or no prior social connection to their victims, we describe rape events in terms of a sequential series of phases that are analogous to those employed to analyze homicides and robbery. The five phases of the kind of rape events we describe include (1) preexisting life tensions, (2) transformation of motivation into action, (3) perpetrator-victim confrontation, (4) situation management, and (5) disengagement. We also argue that within these five phases, perpetrators exhibit differential awareness of their own actions, apply divergent meanings to apparently similar actions, and engage in different degrees and types of organization. - jce.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/34/3/284

Decisions Not to Report Sexual Assault: A Comparative Study among Women Living in Japan Who Are Japanese, Korean, Chinese, and English-Speaking 
John P. J. Dussich, College of Applied International Studies, Tokiwa University, Mito-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 310-8585, Japan - International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Vol. 45, No. 3, 278-301 (2001) © 2001 SAGE Publications
A nationwide survey was conducted comparing Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and English-speaking women in Japan. Variables focused on demographics, attitudes, social conditions, and culture. Japanese women had a different pattern of behavior from the other three groups. The greatest differences were between Japanese and English-speaking. The main reasons given for not reporting were the following: victim did not take the event seriously, victim thought she was too young, victim thought reporting would cause trouble, victim expected rude police, victim expected embarrassment, victim expected police to violate her confidentiality, victim expected offender’s revenge, and victim expected that the offender/acquaintance would get into trouble. These data suggest a much larger dark figure of sexual assault than is reported, especially among those who are not Japanese and those whose offenders were known. Police statistics do not accurately reflect the number of women sexually assaulted, nor is there any systematic information collected explaining their reporting behavior. - ijo.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/45/3/278

Evaluating a Psychoeducational Sexual Assault Prevention Program Incorporating Theatrical Presentation, Peer Education, and Social Work. Research on Social Work Practice, 10(5), 2000. - Black, Beverly; Weisz, Arlene; Coats, Suzanne; Patterson, Debra. 
Abstract: A theatrical sexual assault prevention program presented by social work students on an urban university campus was evaluated to assess its influence on attitude change of audience attendees. The methodology involved a quasi-experimental pretest, posttest, follow-up group design using a sample of one hundred participants and a comparison group of sixty-four was implemented to evaluate the program's effectiveness. The results showed that the posttest mean scores were significantly lower than pretest mean scores on the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Follow-up scores on two of the four subscales were significantly lower than pretest scores. The conclusion suggests that integrating the disciplines of theater, education, and social work for prevention programming may influence attitudes and contribute to the maintenance of attitude change on some aspects of beliefs related to sexual assault.

Sexual Assault on Campus: What Colleges and Universities Are Doing About It
Colleges and universities are not always the safe havens they are thought to be; college women are at higher risk for sexual assault than their non-college-bound peers. Yet, many rapes and attempted rapes are unreported, perhaps because for the majority of these crimes, victim and assailant are acquainted. Schools vary widely in how they comply with Federal requirements to report and respond to sexual victimization. These are among the findings from the first major survey of the Nation's colleges and universities to inquire about sexual assault on campus and how schools are reporting and handling the problem. Many schools need guidance on how to comply with Federal requirements to disclose security procedures, report crime data, and ensure victims' rights. Promising practices in prevention, policy, victim support services, and other areas are discussed. - ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/205521.htm

“Title IX Requires Colleges and Universities to Eliminate the Hostile Environment Caused by Campus Sexual Assault”
An informative guide to understanding what is expected of colleges and universities under federal gender equity requirements when a sexual assault is reported. In just over three pages, Security on Campus provides a review of legal obligations IHEs agree to uphold when a sexual assault is reported; detailed information on the following sub-topics: sexual assault as a form of sexual harassment, itemized IHE legal requirements under Title IX, and student recourse for violations. The document contains a weblink to the complaint page of Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights website. - securityoncampus.org/victims/titleixsummary.html

Toolkit for Working with Men and Boys to Prevent Gender-Based Violence, The Family Violence Prevention Fund
Funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, this online toolkit is a comprehensive resource for advocates working with men and boys to prevent gender-based violence. This site includes readings, resources, discussion groups, and small group exercises, and includes a recommended 10-lesson work plan for exploring and discussing the toolkit’s themes. Sections include introductory readings on men, masculinities, and violence; a rationale for working with men and boys; an overview of a comprehensive approach; examples of good practices and programs; what men and boys can do; working with young men; working with schools; cross-cultural solidarity; and building partnerships. Visitors are encouraged to interact with others through online discussions of the material. - toolkit.endabuse.org/Home

Guidelines for Medico-Legal Care for Victims of Sexual Violence World Health Organization 
This 154-page document aims to improve professional health services for all individuals who have been victims of sexual violence by providing health care workers with the knowledge and skills that are necessary for the management of victims; standards for the provision of both health care and forensic services to victims; and guidance on the establishment of health care and forensic services for victims. Topics include: establishing a service for victims of sexual violence, obtaining informed consent at the time of clinical examination, documentation and reporting of sexual crimes, and working with the criminal justice system. - who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/

Police Response to Crimes of Sexual Assault: A Training Curriculum
The training curriculum is designed for law enforcement professionals dealing with sexual assault issues. It is divided into six modules covering the following: an overview of sexual assault, definitions of sexual assault and related statutes, procedures for police investigations including a collection of evidence, services available to victims of sexual assault, information for sex offenders, and legal issues. This is a good way to understand the way that law enforcement officials contribute to the fight against sexual assault. The site also includes ready-to-print overheads for presentation purposes. - evawintl.org/ncwp.htm

The Sexual Victimization of College Women (pdf file requiring Adobe Acrobat)
A joint report from BJS and the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) that explores the prevalence and nature of sexual assault occurring at colleges throughout the nation. The study found that about 3 percent of college women experienced a completed and/or attempted rape during the current college year. The study also included a comparison component conducted using methodology similar to that of the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) conducted by BJS. The report was authored by Bonnie S. Fisher, Francis T. Cullen, and Michael G. Turner under grants from BJS and NIJ. - ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/182369.pdf

Rape and Sexual Assault: Reporting to Police and Medical Attention, 1992-2000
Presents information on the consequences of rape and sexual assault for female victims. The study provides the percentages of completed rape, attempted rape, and sexual assault of females that were reported to the police in 1992-2000. The report provides the percentage of victims that were injured and treated from a completed rape, attempted rape, or sexual assault. It presents the percentage of those who reported to the police, and the percentage of those victims who received treatment and whose victimization was reported to the police.
Highlights include the following:
All rapes, 39% of attempted rapes and 17% of sexual assaults against females resulted in injured victims, 1992-2000.
When a rape or sexual assault was reported to the police, the victim was the most likely to report it.
45% of injured female victims of a reported attempted rape compared to 22% of injured victims of an unreported attempted rape received medical treatment, 1992-2000 - U.S. Department of Justice - Bureau of Justice Statistics - ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/rsarp00.htm

Restorative Justice and Sexual Assault 
An Archival Study of Court and Conference Cases 
Kathleen Daly, School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Mt Gravatt Campus, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia; k.daly@griffith.edu.au. 
The British Journal of Criminology 46:334-356 (2006)
As restorative justice has grown in popularity worldwide, mainly in response to youth crime, controversy surrounds its use for sexual, partner and family violence cases. With some exceptions, all jurisdictions have put these offences beyond the reach of restorative justice for both youth and adult offenders and, thus, empirical evidence is lacking. This paper presents findings from an archival study of nearly 400 cases of youth sexual assault, which were finalized in court and by conference or formal caution over a six-and-a-half-year period in South Australia, to address these questions: (1) What differentiates a court from a conference case? (2) What happens once a case goes to court, e.g. what share of cases is dismissed and how do penalties vary for court and conference cases? (3) From a victim’s point of view, what appears to be the better option—having one’s case go to court or conference? Contrary to the concerns raised by critics of conferencing, from a victim’s advocacy perspective, the conference process may be less victimizing than the court process and its penalty regime may produce more effective outcomes. - bjc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/46/2/334

A Program on Preventing Sexual Assault Directed toward Greek Leaders. Report to Department of Education 1999.
Baker, Tamara; Boyd, Cynthia. 
Abstract: This paper discusses a program that uses the leadership and status of Greek system officers to prevent sexual assault at a large university. This program aims to prevent future assaults by altering the conditions of a rape-prone culture. The presentation comprises a definition and two examples of acquaintance rape situations, conditions that fosters rape as a cultural practice, personal attitudes and values about sexual assault, and specific suggestions for changing the conditions in Greek organizations and on campus to combat the rape problem. 

An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Sexual Assault Education Program Focusing on Psychological Barriers to Resistance. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16 (5), pp. 387-407. 2001.
Breitenbecher, Kimberly Hanson; Scarce, Michael. 
Abstract: The investigation empirically evaluates the effectiveness of a sexual assault education program. Participants in this study included ninety-four college women who were randomly assigned to either the treatment group or control group. Early in the academic year, all women responded to survey instruments assessing history of sexual victimization, general knowledge about sexual assault, dating behaviors, sexual communications, perception of the risk for experiencing sexual aggression, resistance strategy, self-blame, disclosure of the experience, and reporting the assault to the police or campus security. At the time of the initial session, women in the treatment group also participated in a ninety-minute sexual assault education program focusing on psychological barriers to resistance. Participants in both groups returned for a seven-month follow-up session and responded to survey instruments again. Results indicate that the sexual assault education program was unsuccessful in influencing any of the outcome variables.

Sexual assault against women

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