Suicide is the action or an act of intentionally killing oneself. Suicide is the act of ending or terminating one's own life, or "willful destruction of one's self-interest". Suicide may be a result of depression, desperation or other undesirable situations.

Suicide

In the current world, suicide is being used as a form of protest, and in the form of kamikaze and suicide bombing as a military or terrorist tactic. The Hindu funeral practice, Sati, where the widow would immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre is still prevalent in many parts of India.

Medically assisted suicide or euthanasia is a controversial ethical issue involving people who are terminally ill.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) argued against Psychological Reductionism in his study of suicide by arguing, and demonstrating, that even after providing a psychological explanation for individual acts of suicide there was something still to account for: the difference in suicide rates between societies.

Different types of Suicide includes Altruistic Suicide, Egoistic Suicide, Anomic Suicide and Fatalistic Suicide.

Firearms are the most common method for suicide (55% of suicides are committed with a firearm). So it is imperative that a suicidal person should not have access to a firearm.

Suicide.org
Suicide is NEVER the answer, getting help is the answer. If you are suicidal, have attempted suicide, or are a suicide survivor, you will find help, hope, comfort, understanding, support, love, and extensive resources here.

STOP A SUICIDE TODAY! [stopasuicide.org/]
Each year in America almost 30,000 people commit suicide, and 70% of those people tell someone or give warning signs before taking their own life. Stop A Suicide Today! can teach you how to recognize the warning signs of suicide in family, friends, co-workers, and patients, and how to respond as you would do with any medical emergency.

Befrienders Worldwide [befrienders.org]
We work worldwide to provide emotional support, and reduce suicide. We listen to people who are in distress. We don't judge them or tell them what to do - we listen. Befrienders centers work to reduce suicide worldwide with 31,000 volunteers in almost 40 countries.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that each year approximately one million people die from suicide, which represents a global mortality rate of 16 people per 100,000 or one death every 40 seconds. It is predicted that by 2020 the rate of death will increase to one every 20 seconds.
* In the last 45 years suicide rates have increased by 60% worldwide. Suicide is now among the three leading causes of death among those aged 15-44 (male and female). Suicide attempts are up to 20 times more frequent than completed suicides.
* Although suicide rates have traditionally been highest amongst elderly males, rates among young people have been increasing to such an extent that they are now the group at highest risk in a third of all countries.
* Mental health disorders (particularly depression and substance abuse) are associated with more than 90% of all cases of suicide.
* However, suicide results from many complex sociocultural factors and is more likely to occur during periods of socioeconomic, family and individual crisis (e.g. loss of a loved one, unemployment, sexual orientation, difficulties with developing one's identity, disassociation from one's community or other social/belief group, and honour).
* In Europe, particularly Eastern Europe, the highest suicide rates are reported for both men and women.
* The Eastern Mediterranean Region and Central Asia republics have the lowest suicide rates.
* Nearly 30% of all suicides worldwide occur in India and China.
* Suicides globally by age are as follows: 55% are aged between 15 to 44 years and 45% are aged 45 years and over.
* Youth suicide is increasing at the greatest rate.
In the US, the Centre of Disease Control and Prevention reports that:
* Overall, suicide is the eleventh leading cause of death for all US Americans, and is the third leading cause of death for young people 15-24 years.
* Although suicide is a serious problem among the young and adults, death rates continue to be highest among older adults ages 65 years and over.
* Males are four times more likely to die from suicide than are females. However, females are more likely to attempt suicide than are males.

Maithri [maithrikochi.org]
Maithri is a voluntary organisation working to provide confidential emotional support to distressed persons, who may be in danger of taking their own lives. Maithri's primary mission is to reduce deaths due to suicide in society. Our services are available free of cost to any person who is undergoing emotional pain, whether suicidal or not.
India alone contributes to more than 10% of suicides in the world. More than one lakh persons (1,27,151) in the country lost their lives by committing suicide during the year 2009. This indicates an increase of 1.7% over the previous year's figure (1,25,017).Majority of suicides occur among men and in younger age groups.

Durkheim's Suicide: A Century of Research and Debate (Routledge Studies in Social and Political Thought) Durkeim's book on suicide, first published in 1897, is widely regarded as a classic text, and is essential reading for any student of Durkheim's thought and sociological method. This book examines the continuing importance of Durkheim's methodology. The wide-ranging chapters cover such issues as the use of statistics, explanation of suicide, anomie and religion and the morality of suicide. It will be of vital interest to any serious scholar of Durkheim's thought and to the sociologist looking for a fresh methodological perspective. Review: One of the more important contributions of the volume is found in its attempts to bring Le Suicide into the modern context... the discussions are useful and informative. ...The book provides an opportunity to consider some of the less common paths of inquiry and discussion. –Contemporary Sociology

Reducing Your Child's Risk For Depression & Suicide (Parenting Pointers) Depression and suicide among children are growing social concerns. Many young people exhibit symptoms of chronic depression. Most of these children will overcome their problems and go on to lead happy lives. Others will attempt suicide. There is a link between depression and suicide. Depression is the “breeding ground” for suicide. Although the majority of depressed children are not suicidal, most suicidal children are depressed. Suicide results in the death of more children than cancer or heart disease. National statistics cite that about 10,000 boys and girls 18 years of age or younger take their own lives every year.

Why Suicide?: Questions and Answers About Suicide, Suicide Prevention, and Coping with the Suicide of Someone You Know 85 percent of us will have some up-close experience with the suicide of someone we know. And more than 20 percent of us will have a family member die by suicide. Journalist Eric Marcus knows this better than most people. In 1970, his father took his life at the age of 44. In 2008, his 49-year-old sister-in-law took her life as well. In a completely revised and updated edition of the landmark original WHY SUICIDE?, Eric Marcus offers thoughtful answers to scores of questions about this complex, painful issue from how to recognize the signs of someone who is suicidal to strategies for coping in the aftermath of a loved one's death. No matter what the circumstances, those of us who are affected by suicide are left with difficult and disturbing questions: * Why did they commit suicide? * Was it my fault? * What should I tell people when they ask what happened? * Is someone who attempts suicide likely to try again? * What should I do if I'm thinking of committing suicide? Drawing from his own experience, as well as interviews with people who have been touched by suicide, Eric Marcus cuts through the veil of silence and misunderstanding to bring clarity, reassurance, and comfort to those who so desperately need it.

The European Suicide - A research project at the Department of Sociology, Stockholm University. Suicide mortality is investigated in an all European perspectives.

On this site you'll find information on some theoretical studies (on the status of Durkheim's theorie of suicide and Parsons' theory of action systems) - sociology.su.se/research/suicide.html

Are Socioeconomic Factors Valid Determinants of Suicide? Controlling for National Cultures of Suicide with Fixed-Effects Estimation
Eric Neumayer, London School of Economics and Political Science
National cultures of suicide have found renewed interest in the recent literature on variation in suicide rates. Fixed-effects estimation controls more elegantly and comprehensively for such cultures than other approaches used in the existing literature. This article's analysis employs a range of economic and social explanatory variables based on economic as well as Durkheimian sociological theory in fixed-effects and random-effects estimation of age-standardized suicide rates in a large panel of up to 68 countries during the period 1980 to 1999. The results suggest that economic and social factors affect cross-country differences in suicide rates in accordance with theory. Importantly, the fixed-effects estimation results do not differ systematically from the random-effects results. This suggests that the vast majority of the existing literature, which typically fails to control for national cultures of suicide and suggests socioeconomic factors as important determinants of suicide, can still be expected to come to valid results.

Suicide Ideation and Acculturation among Low Socioeconomic Status Mexican American Adolescents
Katherine M. Rasmussen, University of Texas-Pan American
Charles Negy, University of Texas-Pan American
Ralph Carlson, University of Texas-Pan American
JoAnn Mitchell Burns, University of Texas-Pan American
The purpose of this study was to determine whether Mexican American adolescents' suicide ideation could be predicted from their acculturation levels. A nonclinical sample of 242 Mexican American eighth-grade students completed the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire-Junior High School version, the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans (modified version), the Beck Depression Inventory-Short Form, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. A stepwise regression analysis was conducted. Although adolescents' acculturation levels did not correlate independently with suicide ideation scores, acculturation did significantly (and positively) predict suicide ideation when combined with depressive symptoms and low self-esteem. Also, Mexican American female adolescents had significantly higher suicide ideation scores and depressive symptoms as well as significantly lower self-esteem than did their male counterparts. Cultural inhibitory variables that possibly decrease Hispanics' suicidal behavior are discussed. - jea.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/17/4/390

A Primer on Rational Suicide and Other Forms of Hastened Death
James L. Werth, Jr., American Psychological Association AIDS Policy Congressional Fellow, jameswerth@aol.com
Daniel J. Holdwick, Jr., St. Lawrence University
This article provides an overview of the major mental health issues involved in the debate over rational suicide and other forms of hastened death. In doing so, it covers the arguments for including counseling psychologists and other mental health professionals in discussions about hastened death; highlights the relevant empirical research associated with the topic, with special attention given to the studies involving psychologists and areas needing more investigation; and reviews the implications for practice and training and provides direction for those counseling psychologists who are working with persons who may be rational in their decisions to hasten death. - tcp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/28/4/511

Physician-Assisted Suicide
Lois Snyder, JD; Daniel P. Sulmasy, OFM, MD, PhD, for the Ethics and Human Rights Committee, American College of Physicians–American Society of Internal Medicine
7 August 2001 | Volume 135 Issue 3 | Pages 209-216
Medical professional codes have long prohibited physician involvement in assisting a patient's suicide. However, despite ethical and legal prohibitions, calls for the liberalization of this ban have grown in recent years.
The medical profession should articulate its views on the arguments for and against changes in public policy and decide whether changes are prudent. In addressing such a contentious issue, physicians, policymakers, and society must fully consider the needs of patients, the vulnerability of particular patient groups, issues of trust and professionalism, and the complexities of end-of-life health care. Physician-assisted suicide is prominent among the issues that define our professional norms and codes of ethics.
The American College of Physicians–American Society of Internal Medicine (ACP–ASIM) does not support the legalization of physician-assisted suicide. The routine practice of physician-assisted suicide raises serious ethical and other concerns. Legalization would undermine the patient–physician relationship and the trust necessary to sustain it; alter the medical profession's role in society; and endanger the value our society places on life, especially on the lives of disabled, incompetent, and vulnerable individuals. The ACP–ASIM remains thoroughly committed to improving care for patients at the end of life. - annals.org/cgi/content/abstract/135/3/209

Anomic Suicide

Durkheim linked anomic suicide to disillusionment and disappointment.

Durkheim distinguished between egoistic, anomic, altruistic, and fatalistic suicide, broad classifications that reflect then-prevailing theories of human behavior. Dismissing altruistic and fatalistic suicide as unimportant, he viewed egoistic suicide as a consequence of the deterioration of social and familial bonds.

Durkheim (1858-1917) borrowed the word anomie from the french philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau and used it in his book Suicide (1897).

Durkheim defined the term anomie as a condition where social and/or moral norms are confused, unclear, or simply not present. Durkheim felt that this lack of norms led to deviant behavior.

Anomie is a concept developed by Emile Durkheim to describe an absence of clear societal norms and values. In the concept of anomie individuals lack a sense of social regulation: people feel unguided in the choices they have to make.

Durkheim was also concerned that anomie might arise from a lack of consensus over social regulation of the workplace.

Anomie means a condition or malaise which in individuals is characterized by an absence or diminution of standards or values.

Anomie can occur in several different situations. For example, the undermining of traditional values may result from cultural contact.

The concept of anomie can be helpful in partially understanding the experience of colonized Aboriginal peoples as their traditional values are disrupted, yet they do not identify with the new cultural values imposed upon them: they lose a sense of authoritative normative regulation.

A Developmental Test of Mertonian Anomie Theory
SCOTT MENARD
Merton's theory of anomie and deviant behavior has not been tested adequately. Oversimplified tests involving the relationship between crime and social class or between crime and the discrepancy between aspirations and expectations ignore both structural and social-psychological aspects of the theory, particularly the pivotal role of the mode of adaptation as an influence on the type and frequency of illegal behavior. In the present study, a careful review of Merton's writings on anomie theory is used to construct a more complete and rigorous test of the theory for respondents in early, middle, and late adolescence. - Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 32, No. 2, 136-174 (1995)

On the Anomie Theories of Merton and Durkheim
iuscrim.mpg.de/forsch/krim/ortmann1_e.html
Analysis, criticism and further development based on the background of empirical studies
Participant: R�diger Ortmann
Abstract: Pertaining to the frame subject "the individual, society and deviant behaviour" the research reported in this article deals with Merton's and Durkheim's anomie-theoretical perspective with respect to the emergence of deviant behaviour. It can be noted, in this connection, that both Merton and his predecessor Durkheim furnish rather unclear definitions of the basic elements of the anomie theory such as the norms, goals and opportunities necessary to attain these goals. This also applies to significant theoretical statements of anomie theory. There exist, above all, no clear statements whatsoever as to why and how society influences the norms and deviant behaviour of the individual. Merton furnishes no concrete responses in this connection - neither to the question as to why the "pressure" arising from goals-means discrepancies should lead to a breakdown of norms, nor regarding the implications of this hypothesis on the character of norms and their emergence, nor to the question whether and for what reason the fact that the responsible agents of this goals-means discrepancy are not individuals, but rather the particular culture and society is of relevance. Durkheim, on the other hand, leaves open the question as to how and why norms and rules are embedded in a system of personal goals and opportunities to attain these goals, so that the existing norms and rules become invalid and need to be replaced by new ones, in the event of sudden and abrupt changes in personal opportunities which have taken place in the wake of economic crises or booms.
Against this background, empirical tests of anomie theory prove to be less significant and, in view of the theories' considerable vagueness, hardly feasible convincingly. The current controversies on a suitable test of Merton's anomie theory hence come as no surprise. Works aiming at theoretical clarification have priority in this context. Accordingly, efforts concentrate on finding answers to the described issues and problems and on developing a theoretical frame of reference committed to the ideas of Merton's and Durkheim's anomie theories on the basis of theoretical and empirical analysis, according to which there exists a relationship between the individual and society which induces the individual to judge society's behaviour towards him according to the criteria equality, (social) justice and balance and to strive for a new balance in case the former equilibrium is disturbed. The biblical notion "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" thus no longer reflects the wish for revenge and retaliation, but rather the attempt to restore balance by adjusting one's own behaviour with the goal of achieving equality and justice. In the context of these arguments society's attitude towards the individual - behind standard and quality - boomerangs back on society, and it is, with respect to the emergence of deviant behaviour, by no means the same thing whether society is responsible for the restricted living conditions of its members or not. Additionally, norms and rules - subject to the logic of functional relationships and thus dependent on other elements - prove to be embedded in a frame of argumentation and linked with other basic elements - in particular with the element of opportunities - to such an extent that the breakdown of norms hypothesized - but not explained - by Merton becomes understandable. For this incorporation of norms in a system of criteria represents both a relativization and integration of norms and rules, as a consequence of which, in the event of serious changes in e.g., economic conditions, the environment and surrounding field of norms change to such an extent that they are no longer "embedded" as before. For this reason norms and rules need to be freshly relativized and embedded (anew) in accordance with Durkheim's theory until the state of "anomie" is eliminated by way of adaptation to the new living conditions - or, in other words, by way of successful "modernization".
Overview
Originally, the study aimed to test Merton's anomie theory (on a sample of juvenile prisoners). According to Merton's theory of anomie, the "culture" grants all members of a society the same success goals, and at the same time society differentiates the chances of access to legitimate opportunities according to location within the social structure (social class). Group-specific pressures result which lead to group-specific deviant behaviour.
Analysis of Merton's theory, however, reveals that the task of testing it can hardly be accomplished, as its statements and the definitions of its basic elements - goals, norms, opportunities - are not so clear as to enable us to clearly decide upon the most suitable test method. Against this background the persistent controversies on the appropriate test method and on how to rate the degree of its empirical soundness are quite understandable. In essence, they are the consequence of unsettled points concerning the theory and constitute a problem which is unable to be solved within the theoretical frame as defined by Merton. We can therefore, either give up Merton's anomie theory altogether and with it also further tests of its soundness, as well as the accompanying discussions about what Merton actually said, or meant by what he said about the anomie theory or adhere to the creative framework of the anomie theory and try to work out more precise theoretical definitions of its fundamental standards and to better understand their contribution to the emergence of deviant behaviour.

Poverty, Socioeconomic Change, Institutional Anomie, and Homicide*
Sang-Weon Kim, Dong-Eui University, South Korea
William Alex Pridemore, Indiana University
Abstract: Objective. This study examined institutional anomie theory in the context of transitional Russia. Methods. We employed an index of negative socioeconomic change and measures of family, education, and polity to test the hypothesis that institutional strength conditions the effects of poverty and socioeconomic change on homicide rates. Results. As expected, the results of models estimated using negative binomial regression show direct positive effects of poverty and socioeconomic change and direct negative effects of family strength and polity on regional homicide rates. There was no support, however, for the hypothesis that stronger social institutions reduce the effects of poverty and socioeconomic change on violence. Conclusions. We interpret these results in the Russia-specific setting, concluding that Russia is a rich laboratory for examining the effects of social change on crime and that empirical research in other nations is important when assessing the generalizability of theories developed to explain crime and violence in the United States. - pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1534075

REVISITING MERTON:
CONTINUITIES IN THE THEORY OF ANOMIE-AND-OPPORTUNITY-STRUCTURES
Sanjay Marwah, George Mason University
and Mathieu Deflem
Abstract: Although the influence of Robert Merton’s contributions in criminological sociology is widely acknowledged, there still remain misunderstandings about his theoretical project. In light of some of these ongoing ambiguities, this paper discusses recent criticisms of the Mertonian theory of deviant behavior and argues that a visionary sociological paradigm of anomie-and-opportunity-structures underlies Merton’s contribution. The status of this paradigm, however, has often been misconstrued and has impaired the elaboration of a genuinely Mertonian theory of deviant behavior. We therefore clarify the various theoretically relevant elements of the Mertonian paradigm and offer suggestions as to its operationalization for crime and deviance research. We argue that future research should identify, examine, and test differentiated aspects of the anomie-and-opportunity-structures paradigm in order to arrive at a more consistent and substantiated conclusion on the validity of Merton’s project. We conclude that properly conceptualized and operationalized, the paradigm still holds great promise for sociological theory and research on deviant behavior. - cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zSTCRanomie.htm

ANOMIE AND STRAIN: CONTEXT AND CONSEQUENCES OF MERTON’S TWO THEORIES
Richard Featherstone, richard.featherstone@uni.edu, University of Northern Iowa &
Mathieu Deflem, deflem@sc.edu, mathieudeflem.net
Abstract: Robert Merton presented two not always clearly differentiated theories in his seminal explorations on the social-structure-and-anomie paradigm: a strain theory and an anomie theory. A one-sided focus on Merton’s strain theory in the secondary literature has unnecessarily restricted the power and effectiveness of Merton’s anomie theory. For although structural strain is one way to explain why deviance occurs in the context of anomie, it is not the only way. We contend that scholars who are critical of strain theory should not automatically discard Merton’s anomie theory, because the perspective of anomie is compatible with several other theories of crime and delinquency. Offering examples of previous integration efforts, we maintain that Merton’s theoretical model can benefit from the input of other theories of crime and deviance as much as these other theoretical perspectives can fine-tune their models and explanations. - cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zamoniestrain.html

GOVERNMENT REGULATION, SOCIAL ANOMIE AND PROTESTANT GROWTH IN LATIN AMERICA
A CROSS-NATIONAL ANALYSIS
Anthony Gill
The rapid growth of evangelical Protestantism in Latin America has received a substantial amount of scholarly attention in recent years. The most common explanation for this phenomenon has been a variant of `social anomie' theory that focuses on changes in social demand for religion. Individuals experiencing socio-economic crisis become displaced from their communities and lose their cultural identities. These individuals are then more susceptible to the appeals of new religious movements. An alternative, supply-side hypothesis is advanced. I argue that the degree of government regulation of religious economies can best account for cross-national variations in Protestant growth. Less restrictive laws regulating religious organizations lower the cost of consuming religion, thus leading to an increase in religious diversity and participation. Comparative statistical analysis of 20 Latin American countries supports the latter hypothesis. This analysis suggests that secularization is a function of government policy. - rss.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/11/3/287

Advancing Institutional Anomie Theory
A Microlevel Examination Connecting Culture, Institutions, and Deviance
Lisa R. Mufti, North Dakota State University, lisa.muftic@ndsu.edu
Institutional anomie theory (IAT) contends that crime can be explained by an examination of American society, particularly the exaggerated emphasis on economic success inherent in American culture, which has created a "cheating orientation" that permeates structural institutions, including academia. Consistent with its macrosocial perspective, previous tests of IAT have examined IAT variables at the structural level only. The current study tests the robustness of IAT by operationalizing IAT variables at the individual level and looking at a minor form of deviance, student cheating. The author also examines the role statistical modeling has in testing the theory at the microlevel. Undergraduates, 122 American born and 48 international, were surveyed about their cheating behaviors and adherence to economic goal orientations. Results related to the hypothesis that American students, relative to foreign-born students, will have an increased adherence to economic goal orientations that increase cheating behaviors are presented, as are suggestions for future studies. - ijo.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/50/6/630

Institutional anomie and societal variations in crime: a critical appraisal, Author: Jensen G.
Abstract: Messner and Rosenfeld have proposed an institutional anomie theory of crime, incorporating the proposition that societal investments in programs to buffer citizens from capricious market forces (decommodification) are inversely related to rates of lethal violence among societies. They support this argument through an analysis of variations in homicide rates among nations. However, the research relevant to their theory is quite limited with numerous claims and arguments yet to be examined. This paper outlines several limitations of the theory and brings data from the World Values Surveys and other sources to bear on their characterization of American culture in comparison to other nations, their arguments about the impact of economic dominance on other institutions, and alternative explanations of the link between decommodification and homicide. Finally, the relevance of the theory to serious property crime is considered and shown to generate serious problems for institutional anomie theory when evaluated as a general theory of crime. - ingentaconnect.com

An Empirical Examination of the Anomie Theory of Drug Use.
Authors: Dull, R. Thomas
Abstract: Investigated the relationship between anomie theory, as measured by Srole's Anomie Scale, and self-admitted drug use in an adult population (N=1,449). Bivariate cross-comparison correlations indicated anomie was significantly correlated with several drug variables, but these associations were extremely weak and of little explanatory value. - eric.ed.gov

ASSESSING MESSNER AND ROSENFELD'S INSTITUTIONAL ANOMIE THEORY: A PARTIAL TEST
MITCHELL B. CHAMLIN
JOHN K. COCHRAN
In Crime and the American Dream, Messner and Rosenfeld contend that culturally and structurally produced pressures to secure monetary rewards, coupled with weak controls from noneconomic social institutions, promote high levels of instrumental crime. Empirically, they suggest that the effects of economic conditions on profit-related crime depend on the strength of noneconomic institutions. This investigation evaluates this proposition with cross-sectional data for U.S. states. In brief; the nonlinear models show considerable, indirect support for Messner and Rosenfeld's institutional anomie theory, revealing that the effects of poverty on property crime depend on levels of structural indicators of the capacity of noneconomic institutions to ameliorate the criminogenic impact of economic deprivation. The implications of these findings are discussed. - blackwell-synergy.com

BEHAVIOR GENETICS AND ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY
ANTHONY WALSH
Criminology is in need of conceptual revival, and behavior genetics can provide the concepts and research design to accomplish this. Behavior genetics is a biologically-friendly environmental discipline that often tells us more about environmental effects on individual traits than about genetic effects. Anomie/strain theory is used to illustrate the usefulness of behavior genetics to criminological theories. Behavior genetics examines the individual differences that sort people into different modes of adaptation and that lead them to cope constructively or destructively with strain. Behavior genetics and other biosocial perspectives have the potential to help illuminate Agnew's (1997) extension of General Strain Theory (GST) into the developmental realm. - blackwell-synergy.com

Anomia is a social psychological condition, rather than a societal condition which ‘anomie’ refers to, characterized by a breakdown in values and a feeling of isolation. This term has proved much easier to measure than has Durkheim's concept of ‘anomie’.

In the philosophy of law and political science, anomia is the state of the absence of law, the negation of law in the sense of lex. Anomia in the sense of the lack of a positive law promulgated by the authority of the state (lex) occurs in conceptions that accept the existence of a pre-social and pre-political state of nature as a historical fact or as a mere hypothesis.

From Anomie to Anomia and Anomic Depression:
A Sociological Critique on the Use of Anomie in Psychiatric Research
Mathieu Deflem, deflem@sc.edu - www.mathieudeflem.net
Abstract: The author of this paper demonstrates that the sociological concept of anomie has undergone important transformations when applied in psychiatric research. It is argued that these transformations are not fully in concordance with the original theories of anomie as they were set forth by Durkheim and Merton. Two approaches in social and cross-cultural psychiatry are examined in this context. First, the concept of anomia as introduced and applied in the research of Leo Srole is discussed. Second, attention is paid to the concept of anomic depression as it was introduced by Wolfgang Jilek in his research among the Coast Salish Indians. - cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zanomie.htm

The term 'altruism' was used by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) to describe a suicide committed for the benefit of others or for the community: this would include self-sacrifice for military objectives in wartime.

Altruism is social behaviour and value orientation in which individuals give primary consideration to the interests and welfare of other individuals, members of groups or the community as a whole. In altruistic regard for others is the principle of action.

Sociobiologists argue that altruistic behaviour has its roots in self-interest, the unconscious desire to protect one's genetic heritage.

Critics of sociobiology respond that altruism is evident between individuals and in social situations where people are completely unrelated genetically and claim that human conduct and motivations cannot be explained without reference to the values and norms of culture.

For example the condition of slavery may make an individual feel that the only way to find escape is suicide. It would be fatalistic suicide because the individual considers himself condemned by fate or doomed to be a slave. A fatalistic situation calling for a fatalistic suicide as a solution or escape.

The category of fatalistic suicide was constructed mainly for purposes of symmetry (as contrasted with egoistic suicide) and because it would undercut his central claims about the role of modern urban life as increasing the incidence of suicide, Durkheim could never seriously examine the possibility that social integration could result in suicide.

Fatalistic suicide served as a descriptor for suicides in traditional societies, because Durkheim was faced with the issue that even in societies with abundant social capital, individuals nevertheless killed themselves.

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